around 1800 with a total volume of 1–1.5 M steres per year and declined rapidly after
1900. In the rest of the basin, other ponds, mostly for fish production, had been
established on headwaters since the Middle Ages [25]. An analysis of Cassini’s
maps showed that, in the late 1700s, 2,550 ponds were present in the whole Seine
catchment (65,000 km
2 ), mostly on first-order streams (69%) [26]. In some regions
their density approached 0.5/km
2 (Fig. 1b). Fish production was for local use
(e.g. abbeys) or exported to nearby cities and more distant cities as Paris, via
waterways. The impact of urban water demand on headwaters is fully documented
for Versailles, which started to develop in 1663: the construction of the chateau and
city involved a major diversion of stream waters (see Sect. 4, Fig. 5).
Fixed water mills were found on all stream orders, principally on orders 2–3
(Fig. 1c). They resulted in the partial diversion of streams through a new course with
regulated slopes, ending with a small water fall (0.5–1 m), while the “old course”
was mostly active at the high-water stage. Around Paris the mill density on small
rivers was on average 0.5/km
2 (6,000 over 12,000 km
2 ) [27] or one mill per 5 km of
river course. Within Paris and on navigated rivers, floating mills were established.
In the alluvial plain of the stream orders 3–4, an artificial network of ditches was
used for centuries to flood grasslands when needed [25]. In greater floodplains
(Fig. 1d), a few kilometres wide such as the Bassée (see below in case studies,
Fig. 6), wetlands and riparian forest dominated. In these free-meandering lowlands,
side arms of the main river, slack waters and abandoned oxbows were common; they
were mostly activated and connected during major floods (>5-year return period).
Stream orders 5–7 were generally navigated, which created a major regulatory
difference with non-navigated reaches: the former were managed by the state, the
others by local owners, a distinction that continues today [28]. These navigated
rivers were not yet regulated, either concerning the water discharge or the river level
(Fig. 1e), with the noted exception of the Yonne, used for timber rafting.
Many of the modifications of the river course were already generated by Paris’s
demand for goods, food, fuel wood and construction wood, largely transported by
waterways. In 1800 Paris was already a metropolis located in the centre of the Seine
basin, with 11% of the basin’s total population (0.5 M for a total of 4.5 M inhabitants) [29], which relied heavily on the basin hinterland for food and energy
[30]. However, the Seine River was not regulated and only slightly artificialised;
banks were largely natural and sandy slopes were still used for landings (Fig. 1e).
During the Napoleon era, the state began to develop the navigation facilities
on the Seine within Paris, with harbours, artificial banks and docks [31]. Numerous
institutions were related to the river transport, particularly the state Ponts et
Chaussées corps of engineers in charge of managing the state-owned navigated
rivers, corresponding to orders 5–7.
⁄
ä
Fig. 1 (continued) across floodplains; (j) navigated sectors with stable levels between locks; (k)
regulated river level and artificial banks within the urban sectors. Case studies: I, Versailles plateau;
II, Bassée alluvial plain; III, Poses lock and weir
The Evolution of the Seine Basin Water Bodies Through Historical Maps
33
1900. In the rest of the basin, other ponds, mostly for fish production, had been
established on headwaters since the Middle Ages [25]. An analysis of Cassini’s
maps showed that, in the late 1700s, 2,550 ponds were present in the whole Seine
catchment (65,000 km
2 ), mostly on first-order streams (69%) [26]. In some regions
their density approached 0.5/km
2 (Fig. 1b). Fish production was for local use
(e.g. abbeys) or exported to nearby cities and more distant cities as Paris, via
waterways. The impact of urban water demand on headwaters is fully documented
for Versailles, which started to develop in 1663: the construction of the chateau and
city involved a major diversion of stream waters (see Sect. 4, Fig. 5).
Fixed water mills were found on all stream orders, principally on orders 2–3
(Fig. 1c). They resulted in the partial diversion of streams through a new course with
regulated slopes, ending with a small water fall (0.5–1 m), while the “old course”
was mostly active at the high-water stage. Around Paris the mill density on small
rivers was on average 0.5/km
2 (6,000 over 12,000 km
2 ) [27] or one mill per 5 km of
river course. Within Paris and on navigated rivers, floating mills were established.
In the alluvial plain of the stream orders 3–4, an artificial network of ditches was
used for centuries to flood grasslands when needed [25]. In greater floodplains
(Fig. 1d), a few kilometres wide such as the Bassée (see below in case studies,
Fig. 6), wetlands and riparian forest dominated. In these free-meandering lowlands,
side arms of the main river, slack waters and abandoned oxbows were common; they
were mostly activated and connected during major floods (>5-year return period).
Stream orders 5–7 were generally navigated, which created a major regulatory
difference with non-navigated reaches: the former were managed by the state, the
others by local owners, a distinction that continues today [28]. These navigated
rivers were not yet regulated, either concerning the water discharge or the river level
(Fig. 1e), with the noted exception of the Yonne, used for timber rafting.
Many of the modifications of the river course were already generated by Paris’s
demand for goods, food, fuel wood and construction wood, largely transported by
waterways. In 1800 Paris was already a metropolis located in the centre of the Seine
basin, with 11% of the basin’s total population (0.5 M for a total of 4.5 M inhabitants) [29], which relied heavily on the basin hinterland for food and energy
[30]. However, the Seine River was not regulated and only slightly artificialised;
banks were largely natural and sandy slopes were still used for landings (Fig. 1e).
During the Napoleon era, the state began to develop the navigation facilities
on the Seine within Paris, with harbours, artificial banks and docks [31]. Numerous
institutions were related to the river transport, particularly the state Ponts et
Chaussées corps of engineers in charge of managing the state-owned navigated
rivers, corresponding to orders 5–7.
⁄
ä
Fig. 1 (continued) across floodplains; (j) navigated sectors with stable levels between locks; (k)
regulated river level and artificial banks within the urban sectors. Case studies: I, Versailles plateau;
II, Bassée alluvial plain; III, Poses lock and weir
The Evolution of the Seine Basin Water Bodies Through Historical Maps
33