shown that waste and wastewater are recent “inventions” of the twentieth century [4]
and that this current linear economy comes after a period of mutualism where urban
waste was considered valuable matter for industry and agriculture.
In this chapter, we aim at giving a long-term perspective of human excreta
management by bridging historical studies and the current “reinvention” of alternative management methods. This case study is based on the city of Paris, particularly
interesting in the sense that its human excreta management has been well
documented since the beginning of the nineteenth century. In addition, its main
river, the Seine River, has an increasingly low flow rate in relation to the population
of Paris, making water and human excreta management critical issues for this city.
We analysed the socioecological trajectory of this territory [5], based on substance
flow analysis. As recommended in previous studies [6, 7], we focus on nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) mass flows to characterise the human excreta management
of this area, and we mainly analyse two aspects of this management: circularity vs
linearity and pollution. Circularity is defined by the proportion of human excreta, as
reflected in N and P mass flows, that goes back to agricultural land. Linearity is the
opposite of circularity: it is defined as the proportion of human excreta that does not
return to agricultural land. Such fractions of human excreta are defined herein as
pollution if it is released in a reactive form into the environment.
Our bibliographical review shows that such long-term analyses of human excreta
management at the urban level are scarce. Only one study has been identified, on the
city of Linköping in Sweden. It shows an abrupt decline of circularity since the
beginning of the twentieth century, leading to nearly total linearity in the 1960s
[8]. Previous studies by Barles provide a solid basis regarding the management of
human excreta in Paris. Numerous historical data and figures concerning human
excreta management have already been compiled. For example, Paris N mass flows
were specifically analysed for the years 1817, 1852, 1869, 1888, 1913 and 1931
[6, 9]. More recently, supplementary data have been gathered to give an overview of
N and P mass flows related to human excreta management for the 1850–2010 period
in the Paris conurbation [7]. In this chapter, we aim at consolidating, updating and
extending the scope of these previous studies with a focus on long-term analysis of
circularity and pollution.
1.2 Temporal and Geographical Frame
Our temporal frame for past management of human excreta is the period 1800–2019.
This makes it possible to understand the changing trajectory of N and P mass flows,
from the search for circularity (nineteenth century) to the advent of linearity.
Concerning the prospective approach, the temporal frame is 2020–2100. Given the
characteristic rate at which management of human excreta has changed in the past
centuries, this temporal frame enables one to project in new socioecological regimes
concerning the management of human excreta.
Past and Future Trajectories of Human Excreta Management Systems: Paris. . .
119
and that this current linear economy comes after a period of mutualism where urban
waste was considered valuable matter for industry and agriculture.
In this chapter, we aim at giving a long-term perspective of human excreta
management by bridging historical studies and the current “reinvention” of alternative management methods. This case study is based on the city of Paris, particularly
interesting in the sense that its human excreta management has been well
documented since the beginning of the nineteenth century. In addition, its main
river, the Seine River, has an increasingly low flow rate in relation to the population
of Paris, making water and human excreta management critical issues for this city.
We analysed the socioecological trajectory of this territory [5], based on substance
flow analysis. As recommended in previous studies [6, 7], we focus on nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) mass flows to characterise the human excreta management
of this area, and we mainly analyse two aspects of this management: circularity vs
linearity and pollution. Circularity is defined by the proportion of human excreta, as
reflected in N and P mass flows, that goes back to agricultural land. Linearity is the
opposite of circularity: it is defined as the proportion of human excreta that does not
return to agricultural land. Such fractions of human excreta are defined herein as
pollution if it is released in a reactive form into the environment.
Our bibliographical review shows that such long-term analyses of human excreta
management at the urban level are scarce. Only one study has been identified, on the
city of Linköping in Sweden. It shows an abrupt decline of circularity since the
beginning of the twentieth century, leading to nearly total linearity in the 1960s
[8]. Previous studies by Barles provide a solid basis regarding the management of
human excreta in Paris. Numerous historical data and figures concerning human
excreta management have already been compiled. For example, Paris N mass flows
were specifically analysed for the years 1817, 1852, 1869, 1888, 1913 and 1931
[6, 9]. More recently, supplementary data have been gathered to give an overview of
N and P mass flows related to human excreta management for the 1850–2010 period
in the Paris conurbation [7]. In this chapter, we aim at consolidating, updating and
extending the scope of these previous studies with a focus on long-term analysis of
circularity and pollution.
1.2 Temporal and Geographical Frame
Our temporal frame for past management of human excreta is the period 1800–2019.
This makes it possible to understand the changing trajectory of N and P mass flows,
from the search for circularity (nineteenth century) to the advent of linearity.
Concerning the prospective approach, the temporal frame is 2020–2100. Given the
characteristic rate at which management of human excreta has changed in the past
centuries, this temporal frame enables one to project in new socioecological regimes
concerning the management of human excreta.
Past and Future Trajectories of Human Excreta Management Systems: Paris. . .
119