2 Atmospheric Contamination by PM-Bound Metal(loid)s
Heavy metal(loid)s in the environment are released both by natural processes and
anthropogenic activities (Foucault et al. 2013; Khalid et al. 2017a; Pierart et al. 2015;
Pourrut et al. 2011; Shahid et al. 2015). The major sources of metal-PM are smelters,
power plants, mining operations, and automobiles. Some studies categorized these
sources as stationary (petroleum refineries, industrial boilers, smelters, and manufacturing facilities) and mobile (automobiles) sources (Chan et al. 2016; Morawska et al.
1998, 2008; Shamshad et al. 2018). Open burning is also considered a major source of
heavy metal(loid) emission to the atmosphere (Wang et al. 2017; Ye et al. 2017).
2.1 Sources of PM-Bound Metal(loid)s
The recent advancements in industrial processes resulted in a release of a large
amount of fine and ultrafine metal-PM into the air due to the use of thinner filters
(Hu et al. 2018; Uzu et al. 2011a; Viswanath and Kim 2016; Xiao et al. 2018).
Cecchi et al. (2008b) reported that metal recycling processes in factories involve
several stages such as crushing, fusion, reduction, and refining. They reported that
each stage of metal recycling generates considerable amounts of undesirable
by-products such as PMs of Cu, Zn, As, Sb, Sn, Bi, and Ag. Uzu et al. (2011a)
reported that refining and furnaces are main sources of metal-PM production during
industrial processes. Indeed, during the recycling of Pb, Pb-acid batteries are melted
at very high temperature, thus releasing several metals such as Cu, As, Sn, and Sb.
The metal type and concentration attached with PM vary with the size of PM. For
example, it was reported that As, Cd, Pb, and V mainly attach with fine PM having a
diameter of less than 2.1 μm, whereas Ni, Co, Cr, and Ce occur mainly in coarse PM
with a diameter greater than 2.1 μm, while Sb, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pd, Pt, and Rh occur at
high levels in the medium range PM of 1.1–4.7 μm (Zereini et al. 2005). Similarly,
Uzu et al. (2011a) reported that Al and Na were mainly attached with PM 1–2.5 while As
with PM 2.5–10 .
The release of metal-PM is more pronounced in developed countries with significant industrial development (Türtscher et al. 2017). For example, in Europe and
France, 4,800 and 108 tons of Pb, respectively, were released into the atmosphere in
2007 (Schreck et al. 2012a). The Pb was mainly released into the atmosphere as PM
from Pb production and acid battery recycling (Ettler et al. 2005; Uzu et al. 2011a).
Therefore, the fallouts of atmospheric PM represent the main source of Pb contamination in the environment at the global scale (atmosphere and soil) (Donisa et al.
2000). Regardless of the strong decrease in vehicle and industrial Pb emissions in
the recent past (Glorennec et al. 2007), Pb-enriched PM is still released into the
environment, especially by Pb recycling facilities (Batonneau et al. 2004; Ohmsen
2001; Sobanska et al. 2000). Similarly, the release of other heavy metal(loid)s such
as As, Cd, and Cu into the atmosphere has also been reported.
The emission of heavy metal(loid)s and their attachment with PM vary with metal
type and size/composition of PM, as well as with the type of industry and industrial
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M. Shahid et al.
Heavy metal(loid)s in the environment are released both by natural processes and
anthropogenic activities (Foucault et al. 2013; Khalid et al. 2017a; Pierart et al. 2015;
Pourrut et al. 2011; Shahid et al. 2015). The major sources of metal-PM are smelters,
power plants, mining operations, and automobiles. Some studies categorized these
sources as stationary (petroleum refineries, industrial boilers, smelters, and manufacturing facilities) and mobile (automobiles) sources (Chan et al. 2016; Morawska et al.
1998, 2008; Shamshad et al. 2018). Open burning is also considered a major source of
heavy metal(loid) emission to the atmosphere (Wang et al. 2017; Ye et al. 2017).
2.1 Sources of PM-Bound Metal(loid)s
The recent advancements in industrial processes resulted in a release of a large
amount of fine and ultrafine metal-PM into the air due to the use of thinner filters
(Hu et al. 2018; Uzu et al. 2011a; Viswanath and Kim 2016; Xiao et al. 2018).
Cecchi et al. (2008b) reported that metal recycling processes in factories involve
several stages such as crushing, fusion, reduction, and refining. They reported that
each stage of metal recycling generates considerable amounts of undesirable
by-products such as PMs of Cu, Zn, As, Sb, Sn, Bi, and Ag. Uzu et al. (2011a)
reported that refining and furnaces are main sources of metal-PM production during
industrial processes. Indeed, during the recycling of Pb, Pb-acid batteries are melted
at very high temperature, thus releasing several metals such as Cu, As, Sn, and Sb.
The metal type and concentration attached with PM vary with the size of PM. For
example, it was reported that As, Cd, Pb, and V mainly attach with fine PM having a
diameter of less than 2.1 μm, whereas Ni, Co, Cr, and Ce occur mainly in coarse PM
with a diameter greater than 2.1 μm, while Sb, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pd, Pt, and Rh occur at
high levels in the medium range PM of 1.1–4.7 μm (Zereini et al. 2005). Similarly,
Uzu et al. (2011a) reported that Al and Na were mainly attached with PM 1–2.5 while As
with PM 2.5–10 .
The release of metal-PM is more pronounced in developed countries with significant industrial development (Türtscher et al. 2017). For example, in Europe and
France, 4,800 and 108 tons of Pb, respectively, were released into the atmosphere in
2007 (Schreck et al. 2012a). The Pb was mainly released into the atmosphere as PM
from Pb production and acid battery recycling (Ettler et al. 2005; Uzu et al. 2011a).
Therefore, the fallouts of atmospheric PM represent the main source of Pb contamination in the environment at the global scale (atmosphere and soil) (Donisa et al.
2000). Regardless of the strong decrease in vehicle and industrial Pb emissions in
the recent past (Glorennec et al. 2007), Pb-enriched PM is still released into the
environment, especially by Pb recycling facilities (Batonneau et al. 2004; Ohmsen
2001; Sobanska et al. 2000). Similarly, the release of other heavy metal(loid)s such
as As, Cd, and Cu into the atmosphere has also been reported.
The emission of heavy metal(loid)s and their attachment with PM vary with metal
type and size/composition of PM, as well as with the type of industry and industrial
68
M. Shahid et al.