Similarly, automobile emission is also a major source of atmospheric contamination. Many technology-based innovations to decrease atmospheric contamination
from automobiles include utilization of lead-free fuel and the use of hybrid and
electric vehicles. Use of electricity-powered buses in metropolitan of big cities (e.g.,
London, UK) is a step toward environmentally sustainable development.
In order to control the atmospheric metal-PM contamination, the monitoring and
environmental risk assessment/management tools/models can be used (Dore et al.
2014). For example, geographic information system (GIS) and global positioning
system (GPS) can be used for risk assessment/management tools/models related
to atmospheric metal-PM pollution. Similarly, the remote sensing, as well as the
meteorological and air pollution dispersion models (Regional heavy metal transport
model, Weather Research and Forecasting, The Air Pollution Model, Regional
Atmospheric Modeling System, and MM5 modeling system software), can also be
used for various aspects of atmospheric pollution (Cheng et al. 2007; Hurley et al.
2005; Stein et al. 2015). In addition, statistical models have also been used for heavy
metal(loid)s modeling (Peng et al. 2016).
Moreover, awareness among the community is always a key factor in controlling
the atmospheric contamination and remediating/minimizing the toxic health hazards.
Similarly, the education and publicity of controlling atmospheric contamination are
also very important. Public awareness activities such as pollution remediation and
awareness seminars at school/college/university and community level (farmers,
small-scale industrialists) can be highly effective. In addition, mass media, as well
as the government and nongovernment organizations (NGOs, social society), might
play their part in this facet.
8 Future Perspectives
• The majority of the studies describing the characterization and toxicity of metalPM in the ambient atmosphere provide information about quantitative levels for
PM 10 fractions. There is very little data available for the submicronic fraction
(PM < 2.5). Therefore, more studies may be conducted for submicronic highly
reactive and toxic fractions of metal-PM. Moreover, the reference or threshold
levels for atmospheric heavy metal(loid)s (Cd, Pb, Ni, As, and Cr) are currently
based on coarse PM (the European Union, the World Health Organization, and
the Chinese “Ambient Air Quality Standards”).
• The natural background concentration of heavy metal(loid)s in energy sources
(coal, petrol, etc.) used in industry/vehicles is one of the major sources of metalPM emission to the atmosphere. It has been reported that the metal-PM concentration in the atmosphere is closely related to energy consumption source.
Therefore, energy sources used in the industry/vehicles need further investigation
in relation to the atmospheric release of metal-PM.
96
M. Shahid et al.
from automobiles include utilization of lead-free fuel and the use of hybrid and
electric vehicles. Use of electricity-powered buses in metropolitan of big cities (e.g.,
London, UK) is a step toward environmentally sustainable development.
In order to control the atmospheric metal-PM contamination, the monitoring and
environmental risk assessment/management tools/models can be used (Dore et al.
2014). For example, geographic information system (GIS) and global positioning
system (GPS) can be used for risk assessment/management tools/models related
to atmospheric metal-PM pollution. Similarly, the remote sensing, as well as the
meteorological and air pollution dispersion models (Regional heavy metal transport
model, Weather Research and Forecasting, The Air Pollution Model, Regional
Atmospheric Modeling System, and MM5 modeling system software), can also be
used for various aspects of atmospheric pollution (Cheng et al. 2007; Hurley et al.
2005; Stein et al. 2015). In addition, statistical models have also been used for heavy
metal(loid)s modeling (Peng et al. 2016).
Moreover, awareness among the community is always a key factor in controlling
the atmospheric contamination and remediating/minimizing the toxic health hazards.
Similarly, the education and publicity of controlling atmospheric contamination are
also very important. Public awareness activities such as pollution remediation and
awareness seminars at school/college/university and community level (farmers,
small-scale industrialists) can be highly effective. In addition, mass media, as well
as the government and nongovernment organizations (NGOs, social society), might
play their part in this facet.
8 Future Perspectives
• The majority of the studies describing the characterization and toxicity of metalPM in the ambient atmosphere provide information about quantitative levels for
PM 10 fractions. There is very little data available for the submicronic fraction
(PM < 2.5). Therefore, more studies may be conducted for submicronic highly
reactive and toxic fractions of metal-PM. Moreover, the reference or threshold
levels for atmospheric heavy metal(loid)s (Cd, Pb, Ni, As, and Cr) are currently
based on coarse PM (the European Union, the World Health Organization, and
the Chinese “Ambient Air Quality Standards”).
• The natural background concentration of heavy metal(loid)s in energy sources
(coal, petrol, etc.) used in industry/vehicles is one of the major sources of metalPM emission to the atmosphere. It has been reported that the metal-PM concentration in the atmosphere is closely related to energy consumption source.
Therefore, energy sources used in the industry/vehicles need further investigation
in relation to the atmospheric release of metal-PM.
96
M. Shahid et al.