lakes and ponds or ‘dam storages’ (ibid.) built
from natural materials like clay or loam (Studer
and Liniger 2013). Such macro-catchment measures tend to require heavy machinery like
excavators and bulldozers and they involve
considerably more planning and implementation
costs, but they can also provide ecosystem services of a larger scale.
1.3 Water Harvesting by Building
Earth Dams
Mountain farmer and permaculturist Sepp Holzer
advocates for the creation of ‘water landscapes’
through a series of interconnected ponds and
lakes as reservoirs, which he calls ‘water retention spaces’ designed to catch rainwater surface
run-off from the actual farmland or adjacent land
(Holzer nd). Water retention in the land as such is
nothing innovative. As described by the
USIDBR (2012), earth dams are said to have
existed since the early days of civilisation with,
e.g., an eleven miles long earth filled dam dating
back to 504 B.C. in Sri Lanka. Later, around
250–900 A.D. (Maya Classic Period) the ancient
Maya built larger scale reservoirs and dams as an
adaptation strategy to changes in climate, whilst
connecting water with ritual, ideology and control of power (Wyatt 2014). In the ancient city of
Tikal in Guatemala, Mayan rulers monopolised
reservoirs with a combined storage capacity of
100,000–250,000 m
3 within a catchment potential of 900,000 m
3 , based on 1,500 mm of annual
rainfall (Scarborough 1998).
With regard to current climate adaptation
strategies, Ferrand and Cecunjanin (2014) state
in their extensive review on ancient and traditional rainwater harvesting applications: “today,
rainwater harvesting systems are mostly abandoned as a result of centralization of water
resources”.
The primary benefit of rainwater harvesting in
agriculture is to prevent soil erosion and to keep
the resource—water—under the farmer’s control
for subsequent benefits (Holzer 2008) such as
e.g. on-farm microclimate regulation (temperature, moisture), habitat for waterfowl breeding
and aquaculture, livestock drinking water, supplementary irrigation, wildlife habitat, recreation
(swimming, bathing) and groundwater recharge
(Power 2010; Biggs et al. 2016). Holzer gained
empirical knowledge about this kind of holistic
farm management on his 50 ha mountain farm
Krameterhof in the Austrian Lungau (Salzburger
Land) with more than 60 ponds within the top
half of the land and pond sizes ranging from 10–
80 m in length and 4–40 m in width (Holzer
2008). Köppen-Geiger climate classification for
this region is Dfb (i.e. humid continental, with
mild summer and long cold winter). Like many
other gardeners and farmers who advocate for the
principles of permaculture, Holzer acts as an
independent consultant to land owners and
farmers alike and advises on land restoration and
management issues in other climatic zones
(www.holzerpermaculture.us). Other experienced grassroots consultants specialise in teaching, training, planning and implementing largescale earthworks to create water landscapes
through swales, ponds and lakes. For example,
Geoff Lawton is head of the PRI and known in
the media for his project “Greening the Desert”
in Jordan (Al Jazeera 2011), while Darren Doherty is known for his keyline water systems
(TreeYo nd). Such consultants tend to capitalise
on their empirical knowledge from many years of
project experience. At the same time, the creation
of water landscapes through ponds and lakes as a
grassroots service provision has been emerging
only recently.
1.4 Case Study: Commercial
‘Permaculture’ Farm
The current case study focuses on an EU organic
and biodynamic (Demeter) certified fruit farm in
southern Spain. According to Köppen-Geiger
climate classification, the farm lies within the
region of Csa (i.e. temperate Mediterranean, with
dry and hot summer). In 2010, the farm owner
decided to invest in diversifying his production
system because he wanted to see productivity
gains through a series of measures recommended
by permaculture consultants and related popular
60
I. Fiebrig and M. Van De Wiel
from natural materials like clay or loam (Studer
and Liniger 2013). Such macro-catchment measures tend to require heavy machinery like
excavators and bulldozers and they involve
considerably more planning and implementation
costs, but they can also provide ecosystem services of a larger scale.
1.3 Water Harvesting by Building
Earth Dams
Mountain farmer and permaculturist Sepp Holzer
advocates for the creation of ‘water landscapes’
through a series of interconnected ponds and
lakes as reservoirs, which he calls ‘water retention spaces’ designed to catch rainwater surface
run-off from the actual farmland or adjacent land
(Holzer nd). Water retention in the land as such is
nothing innovative. As described by the
USIDBR (2012), earth dams are said to have
existed since the early days of civilisation with,
e.g., an eleven miles long earth filled dam dating
back to 504 B.C. in Sri Lanka. Later, around
250–900 A.D. (Maya Classic Period) the ancient
Maya built larger scale reservoirs and dams as an
adaptation strategy to changes in climate, whilst
connecting water with ritual, ideology and control of power (Wyatt 2014). In the ancient city of
Tikal in Guatemala, Mayan rulers monopolised
reservoirs with a combined storage capacity of
100,000–250,000 m
3 within a catchment potential of 900,000 m
3 , based on 1,500 mm of annual
rainfall (Scarborough 1998).
With regard to current climate adaptation
strategies, Ferrand and Cecunjanin (2014) state
in their extensive review on ancient and traditional rainwater harvesting applications: “today,
rainwater harvesting systems are mostly abandoned as a result of centralization of water
resources”.
The primary benefit of rainwater harvesting in
agriculture is to prevent soil erosion and to keep
the resource—water—under the farmer’s control
for subsequent benefits (Holzer 2008) such as
e.g. on-farm microclimate regulation (temperature, moisture), habitat for waterfowl breeding
and aquaculture, livestock drinking water, supplementary irrigation, wildlife habitat, recreation
(swimming, bathing) and groundwater recharge
(Power 2010; Biggs et al. 2016). Holzer gained
empirical knowledge about this kind of holistic
farm management on his 50 ha mountain farm
Krameterhof in the Austrian Lungau (Salzburger
Land) with more than 60 ponds within the top
half of the land and pond sizes ranging from 10–
80 m in length and 4–40 m in width (Holzer
2008). Köppen-Geiger climate classification for
this region is Dfb (i.e. humid continental, with
mild summer and long cold winter). Like many
other gardeners and farmers who advocate for the
principles of permaculture, Holzer acts as an
independent consultant to land owners and
farmers alike and advises on land restoration and
management issues in other climatic zones
(www.holzerpermaculture.us). Other experienced grassroots consultants specialise in teaching, training, planning and implementing largescale earthworks to create water landscapes
through swales, ponds and lakes. For example,
Geoff Lawton is head of the PRI and known in
the media for his project “Greening the Desert”
in Jordan (Al Jazeera 2011), while Darren Doherty is known for his keyline water systems
(TreeYo nd). Such consultants tend to capitalise
on their empirical knowledge from many years of
project experience. At the same time, the creation
of water landscapes through ponds and lakes as a
grassroots service provision has been emerging
only recently.
1.4 Case Study: Commercial
‘Permaculture’ Farm
The current case study focuses on an EU organic
and biodynamic (Demeter) certified fruit farm in
southern Spain. According to Köppen-Geiger
climate classification, the farm lies within the
region of Csa (i.e. temperate Mediterranean, with
dry and hot summer). In 2010, the farm owner
decided to invest in diversifying his production
system because he wanted to see productivity
gains through a series of measures recommended
by permaculture consultants and related popular
60
I. Fiebrig and M. Van De Wiel