‘permaculture’ as an activity to prevent land
degradation within their framework to achieve
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). LDN is
defined as “a state whereby the amount and
quality of land resources necessary to support
ecosystem functions and services and enhance
food security remain stable or increase within
specified temporal and spatial scales and
ecosystems”. The framework clearly ascribes
ecosystem services a value representing “stocks
of natural capital associated with land resources”
(Orr et al. 2017). The European Commission
goes a step further and has recognized ‘permaculture’ as one of the several prototypes of sustainable agro-ecology systems within their
Horizon 2020 research work programme (2016–
2017) and a specific research challenge on productivity gains through functional biodiversity,
linked to sustained delivery of natural habitats
(EU Horizon 2020 2016). The Permaculture
Worldwide Network (PWN nd) lists more than
2000 projects distributed across the globe. This
internet-based network is run by the Australian
Permaculture Research Institute (PRI), probably
the most prominent non-academic permaculture
teaching institution. A wider scientific analysis as
to the social, environmental, economic or other
favourable impacts of such projects is being
established, both within the social as well as the
natural sciences and across disciplines. The current study forms part of this research endeavour
and puts permaculture as an integrative approach
into perspective with a resources-focused nexus
management approach (Hettiarachchi and
Ardakanian 2016; Bleischwitz et al. 2018).
Agroecology, in turn, is an essential part of
many permaculture practices. The term ‘agroecology’ was first used as an adjective—‘agroecological’—by Bensin (1928, 1930) within
scientific research. Today, the discipline represents the paradigm shift in sustainable agriculture, which promotes restoration processes at the
level of soil, plot, farm and landscape (Gliessman
2015). Agroecology can be viewed as (1) a
farming practice, (2) a socio-political movement
and (3) a scientific discipline (Wezel et al. 2009).
Permaculture, in turn, drawing on agroecological
practices, can be considered (1) a design system,
(2) a best practices framework, (3) a worldview
and (4) a bottom-up movement (Ferguson and
Lovell 2015).
1.2 Rainwater Harvesting
Within the agroecological practices of permaculture, water as a resource and on-site rainwater
management plays an important role in relation
to Holmgren’s permaculture principle (2) ‘catch
and store energy’ (2011) which refers to the
closure of resource loops in the widest sense and
on the farmland in particular. According to
Mollison (1988), managing water flows on
farmland, i.e. predominantly from rainfall, creates “long-term water and wildlife reserves in the
total landscape” to improve “the global water
cycle”. Permaculture’s recommended water
management practices fall under the term of
water harvesting (WH), defined by Critchley and
Siegert (1991) as ‘collection of run-off for its
productive use’, making deliberate use of surface
run-off (Oweis and Hachum 2009) and shifting
the timing of water availability (Richter 2014).
They are ‘low-external-input-techniques’ or low
impact nature-based solutions, in accordance
with permaculture design principles such as ‘use
and value renewable resources and services’ as
well as ‘use small and slow solutions’; building
sustainably with natural, renewable materials that
can also be considered aesthetically beautiful is
preferred (Holmgren 2011) over large-scale
concrete hydro dams primarily built for energy
production or reservoirs for agricultural irrigation
purposes, both of which have far-reaching environmental impacts (Ringler et al. nd; Keskinen
et al. 2012; Biemans et al. 2011).
WH designs may include techniques that
improve water infiltration into the soil, e.g. pitting, terracing or keyline channelling. Swales,
demi lunes or semi-circular bunds can concentrate water near trees and other vegetation or
crops, where it supports productivity. Such
measures fall into the category of ‘microcatchment water harvesting’ (Oweis and
Hachum 2009). Macro-catchment WH techniques include the creation of reservoirs like
Usefulness of Surface Water Retention Reservoirs …
59
degradation within their framework to achieve
Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). LDN is
defined as “a state whereby the amount and
quality of land resources necessary to support
ecosystem functions and services and enhance
food security remain stable or increase within
specified temporal and spatial scales and
ecosystems”. The framework clearly ascribes
ecosystem services a value representing “stocks
of natural capital associated with land resources”
(Orr et al. 2017). The European Commission
goes a step further and has recognized ‘permaculture’ as one of the several prototypes of sustainable agro-ecology systems within their
Horizon 2020 research work programme (2016–
2017) and a specific research challenge on productivity gains through functional biodiversity,
linked to sustained delivery of natural habitats
(EU Horizon 2020 2016). The Permaculture
Worldwide Network (PWN nd) lists more than
2000 projects distributed across the globe. This
internet-based network is run by the Australian
Permaculture Research Institute (PRI), probably
the most prominent non-academic permaculture
teaching institution. A wider scientific analysis as
to the social, environmental, economic or other
favourable impacts of such projects is being
established, both within the social as well as the
natural sciences and across disciplines. The current study forms part of this research endeavour
and puts permaculture as an integrative approach
into perspective with a resources-focused nexus
management approach (Hettiarachchi and
Ardakanian 2016; Bleischwitz et al. 2018).
Agroecology, in turn, is an essential part of
many permaculture practices. The term ‘agroecology’ was first used as an adjective—‘agroecological’—by Bensin (1928, 1930) within
scientific research. Today, the discipline represents the paradigm shift in sustainable agriculture, which promotes restoration processes at the
level of soil, plot, farm and landscape (Gliessman
2015). Agroecology can be viewed as (1) a
farming practice, (2) a socio-political movement
and (3) a scientific discipline (Wezel et al. 2009).
Permaculture, in turn, drawing on agroecological
practices, can be considered (1) a design system,
(2) a best practices framework, (3) a worldview
and (4) a bottom-up movement (Ferguson and
Lovell 2015).
1.2 Rainwater Harvesting
Within the agroecological practices of permaculture, water as a resource and on-site rainwater
management plays an important role in relation
to Holmgren’s permaculture principle (2) ‘catch
and store energy’ (2011) which refers to the
closure of resource loops in the widest sense and
on the farmland in particular. According to
Mollison (1988), managing water flows on
farmland, i.e. predominantly from rainfall, creates “long-term water and wildlife reserves in the
total landscape” to improve “the global water
cycle”. Permaculture’s recommended water
management practices fall under the term of
water harvesting (WH), defined by Critchley and
Siegert (1991) as ‘collection of run-off for its
productive use’, making deliberate use of surface
run-off (Oweis and Hachum 2009) and shifting
the timing of water availability (Richter 2014).
They are ‘low-external-input-techniques’ or low
impact nature-based solutions, in accordance
with permaculture design principles such as ‘use
and value renewable resources and services’ as
well as ‘use small and slow solutions’; building
sustainably with natural, renewable materials that
can also be considered aesthetically beautiful is
preferred (Holmgren 2011) over large-scale
concrete hydro dams primarily built for energy
production or reservoirs for agricultural irrigation
purposes, both of which have far-reaching environmental impacts (Ringler et al. nd; Keskinen
et al. 2012; Biemans et al. 2011).
WH designs may include techniques that
improve water infiltration into the soil, e.g. pitting, terracing or keyline channelling. Swales,
demi lunes or semi-circular bunds can concentrate water near trees and other vegetation or
crops, where it supports productivity. Such
measures fall into the category of ‘microcatchment water harvesting’ (Oweis and
Hachum 2009). Macro-catchment WH techniques include the creation of reservoirs like
Usefulness of Surface Water Retention Reservoirs …
59