some safety measures to crop handlers and consumers. It also elaborates on how we can effectively and safely recover the nutrients present in
human waste/wastewater while simultaneously
mitigating the risks through locally available
solutions.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area: Hubli–Dharwad,
Karnataka
Hubli and Dharwad (Hubli–Dharwad) are twin
cities in the Indian state of Karnataka and the
second-largest conurbation in Karnataka after
Bengaluru (Villageinfo nd). They are located in
North Karnataka, about 430 km north of Bangalore. While Dharwad is the administrative
headquarters, the city of Hubli, situated about
20 km southeast of Dharwad, is the commercial
center and business hub of North Karnataka. The
cities have a single municipal corporation called
Hubli–Dharwad
Municipal
Corporation
(HDMC). Hubli is located at an altitude of 2,200
ft. and Dharwad at an altitude of 2,500 ft. above
mean sea level, the terrain sloping from Dharwad
towards Hubli. Dharwad has more favourable
climatic conditions and is colder than Hubli
because of the altitude difference of 300 ft. The
temperature in Hubli reaches up to 40 °C (April),
the average high is around 30 °C. The average
rainfall is around 675 mm for Hubli and 812 mm
for Dharwad. The Hubli–Dharwad urban area
lies on the Deccan Plateau. The soil towards the
western side of the national highway is mostly
black cotton soil and that on the eastern side of
the highway is red and gravelly, which is also
taken into consideration in the prospective
growth of the city; development proposals are
made with due consideration to preserving the
agriculturally fertile region (HDMC, Census
2011).
The main challenge faced by these twin cities
is the lack of adequate sewerage infrastructure
and thus the wastewater generated in the twin
cities is not completely treated. In Dharwad, the
main wastewater channel flows into the periurban areas of the city. The farmers located in the
peripheries of the city have been using wastewater for irrigation for more than three decades
(HDMC; Bradford et al. 2003).
2.2 Methodology
The methodology followed to conduct the study
was as follows:
• A pre-feasibility study to identify the event
site (wastewater village) and control site
(freshwater village).
• Qualitative assessment of health risks associated with wastewater use at the identified sites.
• Extensive field surveys, inspections, and
interviews to identify existing control measures and documentation of the best practices
of wastewater use through literature review.
2.2.1 Pre-feasibility Study
A pre-feasibility study was conducted in the
Hubli–Dharwad region to review the existing
practices of wastewater use and to identify
potential event and control sites. Farmers of rural
Dharwad have been using wastewater for irrigation for more than three decades. In Dharwad, the
main wastewater canal flows to Madihal, which
was once an outlying village but now incorporated
as a suburb because of the expansion of the city.
From Madihal, the canal passes the peripheries of
Govankoppa, Gongadikoppa, and Maradagi.
A focused group discussion (FGD) conducted
with the farmers in the month of May 2016
revealed that there are 60 farmers in total in
Madihal and the total farmland is around 200
acres. Wastewater use in agriculture is a very old
practice, especially in places like Govankoppa and
Madihal, which are located on the periphery of
Dharwad. This is because of the early assessment
of high nutrient content and a non-chargeable
continuous supply of water for irrigation followed
by the continuous year-round production of vegetables, fruits, crops, and fodder (Hunshal et al.
1997). The proximity to urban areas (i.e., the
source of sewage) ensures a reliable supply of
wastewater for irrigation during the dry season
Sustainable and Safe Use of Wastewater …
41
human waste/wastewater while simultaneously
mitigating the risks through locally available
solutions.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area: Hubli–Dharwad,
Karnataka
Hubli and Dharwad (Hubli–Dharwad) are twin
cities in the Indian state of Karnataka and the
second-largest conurbation in Karnataka after
Bengaluru (Villageinfo nd). They are located in
North Karnataka, about 430 km north of Bangalore. While Dharwad is the administrative
headquarters, the city of Hubli, situated about
20 km southeast of Dharwad, is the commercial
center and business hub of North Karnataka. The
cities have a single municipal corporation called
Hubli–Dharwad
Municipal
Corporation
(HDMC). Hubli is located at an altitude of 2,200
ft. and Dharwad at an altitude of 2,500 ft. above
mean sea level, the terrain sloping from Dharwad
towards Hubli. Dharwad has more favourable
climatic conditions and is colder than Hubli
because of the altitude difference of 300 ft. The
temperature in Hubli reaches up to 40 °C (April),
the average high is around 30 °C. The average
rainfall is around 675 mm for Hubli and 812 mm
for Dharwad. The Hubli–Dharwad urban area
lies on the Deccan Plateau. The soil towards the
western side of the national highway is mostly
black cotton soil and that on the eastern side of
the highway is red and gravelly, which is also
taken into consideration in the prospective
growth of the city; development proposals are
made with due consideration to preserving the
agriculturally fertile region (HDMC, Census
2011).
The main challenge faced by these twin cities
is the lack of adequate sewerage infrastructure
and thus the wastewater generated in the twin
cities is not completely treated. In Dharwad, the
main wastewater channel flows into the periurban areas of the city. The farmers located in the
peripheries of the city have been using wastewater for irrigation for more than three decades
(HDMC; Bradford et al. 2003).
2.2 Methodology
The methodology followed to conduct the study
was as follows:
• A pre-feasibility study to identify the event
site (wastewater village) and control site
(freshwater village).
• Qualitative assessment of health risks associated with wastewater use at the identified sites.
• Extensive field surveys, inspections, and
interviews to identify existing control measures and documentation of the best practices
of wastewater use through literature review.
2.2.1 Pre-feasibility Study
A pre-feasibility study was conducted in the
Hubli–Dharwad region to review the existing
practices of wastewater use and to identify
potential event and control sites. Farmers of rural
Dharwad have been using wastewater for irrigation for more than three decades. In Dharwad, the
main wastewater canal flows to Madihal, which
was once an outlying village but now incorporated
as a suburb because of the expansion of the city.
From Madihal, the canal passes the peripheries of
Govankoppa, Gongadikoppa, and Maradagi.
A focused group discussion (FGD) conducted
with the farmers in the month of May 2016
revealed that there are 60 farmers in total in
Madihal and the total farmland is around 200
acres. Wastewater use in agriculture is a very old
practice, especially in places like Govankoppa and
Madihal, which are located on the periphery of
Dharwad. This is because of the early assessment
of high nutrient content and a non-chargeable
continuous supply of water for irrigation followed
by the continuous year-round production of vegetables, fruits, crops, and fodder (Hunshal et al.
1997). The proximity to urban areas (i.e., the
source of sewage) ensures a reliable supply of
wastewater for irrigation during the dry season
Sustainable and Safe Use of Wastewater …
41