is a general approach, which can be used to grasp
CEK in other locations. This understanding of
CEK could contribute to improving the integrated resource management in this basin.
2 CEK Conceptual Framework
The concept of the socio-ecological system (Folke
2006) is important in CEK definition as it provides
an introduction into the complex interrelations
among humans and nature, where culture as a
product of human knowledge impacts the use of,
adaptations to, and perceptions of the environment
(Steward 1972). The CEK definition used in this
paper is based on earlier studies on similar terms,
such as traditional ecological knowledge (Berkes
et al. 2000), indigenous knowledge (Agrawal
1995), local knowledge (Geertz 2000), and
indigenous technical knowledge (Howes and
Chambers 1980). However, these terms mostly
refer to oral transmitted knowledge, and there is a
chance that written knowledge rooted in a culture
may be available. Thus, the term “cultural” is used
rather than “traditional.” Based on these earlier
works, the CEK can be recognized through three
main characteristics:
(1) Historical experiences in the generation of
knowledge, utilizing indicators in response
adaptation, conservation or protection, and
managing complex natural dynamics (Berkes
et al. 2000). These indicators are used to
obtain a more in-depth understanding of
empirical experiences through the history of
managing environmental resources. Therefore, our research began with asking the
experiences of local people in managing
water resources in this volcanic river basin.
(2) The mechanisms of transfer in current society (Berkes et al. 2000) were the second part
of the assessment, aiming to determine the
forms of CEK in the current society. There
are several possible forms, such as the
institutionalized structures and dynamics of
the community and cultural internalization;
myths, rituals, worldviews, philosophies,
resource management practices, and cultural
values; and taboo, regulation, and ethics.
(3) The existence of “five-senses wisdom” in the
human-nature relationship, which is divided
into substantive and methodological subfeatures based on the human five senses
(visual, touch, hearing, taste, and smell)
(Agrawal 1995; Howes and Chambers 1980).
This approach involves using these indicators to explain natural conditions and how
people should react to such conditions.
The relations of the CEK characteristics are
hypothetically arranged as shown in Fig. 1.
The CEK is based on historical experiences,
developed into various mechanisms of transfer.
Initially, the CEK conceptual framework was
depicted as a linear sequence (Fig. 1), but based
on the study, results were conceptualized in a
more dynamical and cyclical setting (see Fig. 3).
As for the IWRM approach implemented in
this volcanic river basin, the CEK relates to any
of the following four dimensions of IWRM
(Savenije and Zaag 2008): (1) natural: types of
water resources (Graefe 2011; Savenije and Zaag
2008); (2) spatial: characteristics of up-, mid-,
and downstream river basin and their interrelations (Molle 2009; von Hofwegen and Jaspers
1999); (3) temporal: seasonal and long-term
patterns (Savenije and van der Zaag 2008); and
(4) human: actors in water governance multilevel interrelationships (Gupta and Pahl-Wostl
2013; Hooghe and Marks 2001; Jaspers 2003). In
addition, within a volcanic river basin, the lahar
(volcanic debris flow), a water-related hazard, is
also addressed. Problematically, most of the literature on lahars refers to them only as a risk, and
not as a resource (Bignami et al. 2012). Therefore, here we consider lahar management along
the four dimensions of IWRM as they relate to
CEK.
Representing an arguably even more holistic
approach than IWRM, the nexus approach comes
in various different varieties, for example, water–
energy–food, water–soil–waste, water–energy,
and water–environment (Lal 2015; Kurian and
Ardakanian 2015; Rasul and Sharma 2016),
which all aim toward the sustainability and
resiliency of human-environmental systems. The
approach is in line with the socio-ecological
The Potential Contribution of Cultural Ecological …
187
CEK in other locations. This understanding of
CEK could contribute to improving the integrated resource management in this basin.
2 CEK Conceptual Framework
The concept of the socio-ecological system (Folke
2006) is important in CEK definition as it provides
an introduction into the complex interrelations
among humans and nature, where culture as a
product of human knowledge impacts the use of,
adaptations to, and perceptions of the environment
(Steward 1972). The CEK definition used in this
paper is based on earlier studies on similar terms,
such as traditional ecological knowledge (Berkes
et al. 2000), indigenous knowledge (Agrawal
1995), local knowledge (Geertz 2000), and
indigenous technical knowledge (Howes and
Chambers 1980). However, these terms mostly
refer to oral transmitted knowledge, and there is a
chance that written knowledge rooted in a culture
may be available. Thus, the term “cultural” is used
rather than “traditional.” Based on these earlier
works, the CEK can be recognized through three
main characteristics:
(1) Historical experiences in the generation of
knowledge, utilizing indicators in response
adaptation, conservation or protection, and
managing complex natural dynamics (Berkes
et al. 2000). These indicators are used to
obtain a more in-depth understanding of
empirical experiences through the history of
managing environmental resources. Therefore, our research began with asking the
experiences of local people in managing
water resources in this volcanic river basin.
(2) The mechanisms of transfer in current society (Berkes et al. 2000) were the second part
of the assessment, aiming to determine the
forms of CEK in the current society. There
are several possible forms, such as the
institutionalized structures and dynamics of
the community and cultural internalization;
myths, rituals, worldviews, philosophies,
resource management practices, and cultural
values; and taboo, regulation, and ethics.
(3) The existence of “five-senses wisdom” in the
human-nature relationship, which is divided
into substantive and methodological subfeatures based on the human five senses
(visual, touch, hearing, taste, and smell)
(Agrawal 1995; Howes and Chambers 1980).
This approach involves using these indicators to explain natural conditions and how
people should react to such conditions.
The relations of the CEK characteristics are
hypothetically arranged as shown in Fig. 1.
The CEK is based on historical experiences,
developed into various mechanisms of transfer.
Initially, the CEK conceptual framework was
depicted as a linear sequence (Fig. 1), but based
on the study, results were conceptualized in a
more dynamical and cyclical setting (see Fig. 3).
As for the IWRM approach implemented in
this volcanic river basin, the CEK relates to any
of the following four dimensions of IWRM
(Savenije and Zaag 2008): (1) natural: types of
water resources (Graefe 2011; Savenije and Zaag
2008); (2) spatial: characteristics of up-, mid-,
and downstream river basin and their interrelations (Molle 2009; von Hofwegen and Jaspers
1999); (3) temporal: seasonal and long-term
patterns (Savenije and van der Zaag 2008); and
(4) human: actors in water governance multilevel interrelationships (Gupta and Pahl-Wostl
2013; Hooghe and Marks 2001; Jaspers 2003). In
addition, within a volcanic river basin, the lahar
(volcanic debris flow), a water-related hazard, is
also addressed. Problematically, most of the literature on lahars refers to them only as a risk, and
not as a resource (Bignami et al. 2012). Therefore, here we consider lahar management along
the four dimensions of IWRM as they relate to
CEK.
Representing an arguably even more holistic
approach than IWRM, the nexus approach comes
in various different varieties, for example, water–
energy–food, water–soil–waste, water–energy,
and water–environment (Lal 2015; Kurian and
Ardakanian 2015; Rasul and Sharma 2016),
which all aim toward the sustainability and
resiliency of human-environmental systems. The
approach is in line with the socio-ecological
The Potential Contribution of Cultural Ecological …
187