routine activities in agriculture and household, many women
have also developed knowledge in water and soil
management.
3.3 Energy and Transport
Although the most vulnerable sectors in Egypt according to
IPCC involve the development of coastal zone, agriculture,
and water resources, energy and transport remains as one of
the priority sectors that is influenced by climate change. In
the past decade, Egypt has a rapid energy consumption level,
which was reflected in terms of more energy subsidies.
Petroleum products and natural gas production trigger
greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions in Egypt since they
secure most of the country’s energy supply. On the one
hand, natural gas is slowly replacing crude oil, due to the
discovery of natural gas reserves; on the other hand, oil and
gas still represent over than 90% of Egypt’s energy sources.
In recent years, the Egyptian hoped to produce 20% of
total generated electricity from renewable sources by 2020.
However, there is a slow impact in practice for using
renewable options because of the insufficient information
among households of the benefits and methods of renewables. However, energy is not gender neutral. Women
depend on energy in both household and income-generating
tasks. They can play a central role in ensuring a household’s
energy security, to assist in developing sustainable and
renewable energy lifestyle in the long run. In addition,
women are at higher risk of respiratory complaints and
premature death due to cooking over indoor fires with poor
ventilation (Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Centre
for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and
Europe and the Global Gender Office of the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 2011).
Several developing economies still did not incorporate a
gender dimension in their energy management. A good
starting point is identifying energy needs where women are
mainly involved. Mainstreaming gender into the energy
sector requires recognition of the roles that women currently
play. This involves promoting the role of women as (i) energy savers by allowing relevant energy information to lower
their daily use in households or communities; (ii) key actors
in good practice for the methods of renewable energy, particularly in household tasks; (iii) educators to their children
about the use of energy (The Global Gender Office of the
International Union for Conservation of Nature 2012).
Mainstreaming gender perspective in the energy polices will
assist in building women’s capacities in technical and
business skills that will allow them to use and promote clean
energy technology.
In spite of the percentage of women labor with underpayment or without payment, their management contributions are
significant as evident in the above examples. This represents a
strength focal point that would be useful to build a sustainable
development that reflects the gender perspective. However,
men appear to have predominant control over decision‐making. Women access to services such as credit, extension,
training, and markets is limited compared to men. This is
mainly attributed to weak institutional structures, traditional
and cultural practices, as well as women’s lack of collateral.
Based on their daily livelihood practices, it appears that
women may have more effective roles in implementing to
climate change adaption measures. However, many adaptation strategies ignore gender issues, thus reinforce current
risk-imbalances as well as undermining the ability of women
to contribute efficiently to climate change resolutions. This
requires access to financial resources as well as
gender-informed approaches on preparing less vulnerable
segments (Delivering on the Paris Promises Homepage
2018). This is because permitting gender’ priorities will
ensure more effective mitigation, adaptation, and relevant
programs to all people, by including the social perspective
which will serve sustainable development. However, it is
worth mentioning that currently the MENA region reports a
growing number of programs, businesses, and organizations
almost 34% of total initiatives involved in mainstreaming
and promoting the gender participation in climate change
adaptation measures (Sustainable Energy for All 2017).
4 Econometric Model
Simon Kuznets coined the original idea of EKC (1954)
about economic inequality. His main hypothesis assumes
that inequality increases in the early stages of development,
and then after attaining a certain level of income, inequality
starts to decrease in the form of an inverted U-shaped relationship. After few years, climate change literature found the
inverted U-shaped hypothesis similar to the income–pollution relationship, which assumes that an economy shows an
initial high pollution levels while its main industries develop
because of consuming more natural resources, without
paying attention to environmental quality or clean technology. However, after reaching a higher level of income, the
technology becomes more environment-friendly. At that
stage of development, less damage to the natural resources
can be attained, and allows more concern for sustainable
development. In that context, Olsen reviews a number of
empirical literatures that examined the EKC relationship
between development and environmental degradation (Olsen
2007).
Most of the income–pollution theoretical and empirical
literatures use one of the two approaches: cross-section
analysis or panel data (Grossman and Krueger 1995).
However, the cross-section assumptions fail to reflect the
242
H. H. M. Sileem
have also developed knowledge in water and soil
management.
3.3 Energy and Transport
Although the most vulnerable sectors in Egypt according to
IPCC involve the development of coastal zone, agriculture,
and water resources, energy and transport remains as one of
the priority sectors that is influenced by climate change. In
the past decade, Egypt has a rapid energy consumption level,
which was reflected in terms of more energy subsidies.
Petroleum products and natural gas production trigger
greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions in Egypt since they
secure most of the country’s energy supply. On the one
hand, natural gas is slowly replacing crude oil, due to the
discovery of natural gas reserves; on the other hand, oil and
gas still represent over than 90% of Egypt’s energy sources.
In recent years, the Egyptian hoped to produce 20% of
total generated electricity from renewable sources by 2020.
However, there is a slow impact in practice for using
renewable options because of the insufficient information
among households of the benefits and methods of renewables. However, energy is not gender neutral. Women
depend on energy in both household and income-generating
tasks. They can play a central role in ensuring a household’s
energy security, to assist in developing sustainable and
renewable energy lifestyle in the long run. In addition,
women are at higher risk of respiratory complaints and
premature death due to cooking over indoor fires with poor
ventilation (Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Centre
for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and
Europe and the Global Gender Office of the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 2011).
Several developing economies still did not incorporate a
gender dimension in their energy management. A good
starting point is identifying energy needs where women are
mainly involved. Mainstreaming gender into the energy
sector requires recognition of the roles that women currently
play. This involves promoting the role of women as (i) energy savers by allowing relevant energy information to lower
their daily use in households or communities; (ii) key actors
in good practice for the methods of renewable energy, particularly in household tasks; (iii) educators to their children
about the use of energy (The Global Gender Office of the
International Union for Conservation of Nature 2012).
Mainstreaming gender perspective in the energy polices will
assist in building women’s capacities in technical and
business skills that will allow them to use and promote clean
energy technology.
In spite of the percentage of women labor with underpayment or without payment, their management contributions are
significant as evident in the above examples. This represents a
strength focal point that would be useful to build a sustainable
development that reflects the gender perspective. However,
men appear to have predominant control over decision‐making. Women access to services such as credit, extension,
training, and markets is limited compared to men. This is
mainly attributed to weak institutional structures, traditional
and cultural practices, as well as women’s lack of collateral.
Based on their daily livelihood practices, it appears that
women may have more effective roles in implementing to
climate change adaption measures. However, many adaptation strategies ignore gender issues, thus reinforce current
risk-imbalances as well as undermining the ability of women
to contribute efficiently to climate change resolutions. This
requires access to financial resources as well as
gender-informed approaches on preparing less vulnerable
segments (Delivering on the Paris Promises Homepage
2018). This is because permitting gender’ priorities will
ensure more effective mitigation, adaptation, and relevant
programs to all people, by including the social perspective
which will serve sustainable development. However, it is
worth mentioning that currently the MENA region reports a
growing number of programs, businesses, and organizations
almost 34% of total initiatives involved in mainstreaming
and promoting the gender participation in climate change
adaptation measures (Sustainable Energy for All 2017).
4 Econometric Model
Simon Kuznets coined the original idea of EKC (1954)
about economic inequality. His main hypothesis assumes
that inequality increases in the early stages of development,
and then after attaining a certain level of income, inequality
starts to decrease in the form of an inverted U-shaped relationship. After few years, climate change literature found the
inverted U-shaped hypothesis similar to the income–pollution relationship, which assumes that an economy shows an
initial high pollution levels while its main industries develop
because of consuming more natural resources, without
paying attention to environmental quality or clean technology. However, after reaching a higher level of income, the
technology becomes more environment-friendly. At that
stage of development, less damage to the natural resources
can be attained, and allows more concern for sustainable
development. In that context, Olsen reviews a number of
empirical literatures that examined the EKC relationship
between development and environmental degradation (Olsen
2007).
Most of the income–pollution theoretical and empirical
literatures use one of the two approaches: cross-section
analysis or panel data (Grossman and Krueger 1995).
However, the cross-section assumptions fail to reflect the
242
H. H. M. Sileem