6
Processability of Thermoplastic Composites ................................................................... 151
6.1
Interface and Interphase in Thermoplastic Composites........................................................ 153
6.2
Forms of Reinforcements for Thermoplastic Composites ..................................................... 154
6.3
Models for Mechanical Properties in Particulate Thermoplastic Composites .............. 154
6.3.1 Models Applicable to Tensile Strength ........................................................................................... 154
6.3.2 Models Applicable to the Tensile Modulus .................................................................................... 155
6.4
Thermoplastic Composites ............................................................................................................... 156
6.4.1 Intimate Contact .................................................................................................................................... 157
6.4.2 Autohesion............................................................................................................................................... 159
6.5
Selection Criteria for Thermoplastic Matrices ........................................................................... 160
6.6
Processability of Commonly Used Thermoplastic Matrices ................................................. 164
6.7
Selection Criteria for Reinforcement ............................................................................................ 168
6.7.1 Properties Driven Selection Criteria................................................................................................. 169
6.7.2 Processing Technology Driven by Selection Criteria .................................................................. 170
6.8
Methods to Improve Processability in Thermoplastic Composites ................................... 171
6.9
Processability of Thermoplastic Green Composites ................................................................ 172
6.9.1 Processability of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Matrix Composite .................... 173
6.9.2 Processability of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Biodegradable Matrix Composites ................. 174
6.9.3 Processability of Synthetic Fibre- Reinforced Biodegradable Matrix Composites ............. 174
References ................................................................................................................................................ 176
7
Processability in Open Mould Processing of Polymeric Composites ................ 179
7.1
Open Mould Processing Technologies ......................................................................................... 181
7.1.1 Contact Layup ......................................................................................................................................... 181
7.1.2 Spray Layup ............................................................................................................................................. 184
7.1.3 Filament Winding Technology ........................................................................................................... 186
7.1.4 Polar Winding Technology .................................................................................................................. 189
7.1.5 Automated Tape Winding Technology ............................................................................................ 190
7.1.6 Vacuum Infusion (VI) Technology ..................................................................................................... 192
7.1.7 Thermoforming ...................................................................................................................................... 194
7.1.8 Open Casting Process ........................................................................................................................... 194
7.1.9 Prepreg Processing ................................................................................................................................ 194
7.2
Processing-Induced Defects in Polymeric Composites .......................................................... 198
7.2.1 Unprepared Reinforcement or Matrix ............................................................................................. 198
7.2.2 Improper Storage Conditions ............................................................................................................ 198
7.2.3 Wrong Placement of Fibres ................................................................................................................. 198
7.2.4 Improper Volume Fractions ................................................................................................................ 199
7.2.5 Uncontrolled Temperature, Pressure, and Time ........................................................................... 199
7.2.6 Improper Closing of the Mould ......................................................................................................... 199
7.2.7 Demoulding Temperature ................................................................................................................... 200
7.2.8 Post-fabrication Finishing Operations ............................................................................................ 200
7.3
Future Composite Manufacturing Technologies ...................................................................... 200
7.3.1 Automatic Filament Winding ............................................................................................................. 200
7.3.2 Automatic Tape Layup (ATL) Machine ............................................................................................. 201
7.3.3 Automatic Ply Cutting (APC) Machine ............................................................................................ 201
7.3.4 Tow Placement ....................................................................................................................................... 201
References ................................................................................................................................................ 202
8
Processability in Closed Mould Processing of Polymeric Composites ............. 205
8.1
Closed Mould Processing Technologies ....................................................................................... 206
8.1.1 Matched Die Moulding ........................................................................................................................ 206
IX
Contents
Processability of Thermoplastic Composites ................................................................... 151
6.1
Interface and Interphase in Thermoplastic Composites........................................................ 153
6.2
Forms of Reinforcements for Thermoplastic Composites ..................................................... 154
6.3
Models for Mechanical Properties in Particulate Thermoplastic Composites .............. 154
6.3.1 Models Applicable to Tensile Strength ........................................................................................... 154
6.3.2 Models Applicable to the Tensile Modulus .................................................................................... 155
6.4
Thermoplastic Composites ............................................................................................................... 156
6.4.1 Intimate Contact .................................................................................................................................... 157
6.4.2 Autohesion............................................................................................................................................... 159
6.5
Selection Criteria for Thermoplastic Matrices ........................................................................... 160
6.6
Processability of Commonly Used Thermoplastic Matrices ................................................. 164
6.7
Selection Criteria for Reinforcement ............................................................................................ 168
6.7.1 Properties Driven Selection Criteria................................................................................................. 169
6.7.2 Processing Technology Driven by Selection Criteria .................................................................. 170
6.8
Methods to Improve Processability in Thermoplastic Composites ................................... 171
6.9
Processability of Thermoplastic Green Composites ................................................................ 172
6.9.1 Processability of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic Matrix Composite .................... 173
6.9.2 Processability of Natural Fibre-Reinforced Biodegradable Matrix Composites ................. 174
6.9.3 Processability of Synthetic Fibre- Reinforced Biodegradable Matrix Composites ............. 174
References ................................................................................................................................................ 176
7
Processability in Open Mould Processing of Polymeric Composites ................ 179
7.1
Open Mould Processing Technologies ......................................................................................... 181
7.1.1 Contact Layup ......................................................................................................................................... 181
7.1.2 Spray Layup ............................................................................................................................................. 184
7.1.3 Filament Winding Technology ........................................................................................................... 186
7.1.4 Polar Winding Technology .................................................................................................................. 189
7.1.5 Automated Tape Winding Technology ............................................................................................ 190
7.1.6 Vacuum Infusion (VI) Technology ..................................................................................................... 192
7.1.7 Thermoforming ...................................................................................................................................... 194
7.1.8 Open Casting Process ........................................................................................................................... 194
7.1.9 Prepreg Processing ................................................................................................................................ 194
7.2
Processing-Induced Defects in Polymeric Composites .......................................................... 198
7.2.1 Unprepared Reinforcement or Matrix ............................................................................................. 198
7.2.2 Improper Storage Conditions ............................................................................................................ 198
7.2.3 Wrong Placement of Fibres ................................................................................................................. 198
7.2.4 Improper Volume Fractions ................................................................................................................ 199
7.2.5 Uncontrolled Temperature, Pressure, and Time ........................................................................... 199
7.2.6 Improper Closing of the Mould ......................................................................................................... 199
7.2.7 Demoulding Temperature ................................................................................................................... 200
7.2.8 Post-fabrication Finishing Operations ............................................................................................ 200
7.3
Future Composite Manufacturing Technologies ...................................................................... 200
7.3.1 Automatic Filament Winding ............................................................................................................. 200
7.3.2 Automatic Tape Layup (ATL) Machine ............................................................................................. 201
7.3.3 Automatic Ply Cutting (APC) Machine ............................................................................................ 201
7.3.4 Tow Placement ....................................................................................................................................... 201
References ................................................................................................................................................ 202
8
Processability in Closed Mould Processing of Polymeric Composites ............. 205
8.1
Closed Mould Processing Technologies ....................................................................................... 206
8.1.1 Matched Die Moulding ........................................................................................................................ 206
IX
Contents