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M. S. Miswan et al.
inside plant cells. Rhizofiltration is the sorption of contaminants onto root surface
or other plants parts, or the precipitation in the root zone. Lastly, phytostabilization is the immobilization of compounds in surrounding environment through the
binding of the contaminants and chemicals released by the plant. Mayo and Hanai
(2017) conducted experiment on nitrogen removal and 73.8% was succeeded to be
removed from waste stabilization pond. Meanwhile, Chen et al. (2017) claimed to
remove 57.7% of nitrogen from drainage water. Ojoawo et al. (2015) studied on
phytoremediation of domestic wastewater and removed 51.9% of nitrate. Fang et al.
(2007) stated that phytoremediation removed 76.2% of total nitrogen from eutrophicated water. Depending on the type of pollutants to be remediated by plants, the
mechanisms used are also different, described in Table 8.5.
Phytoremediation is recommended since natural plants are used compared to conventional methods which need costly chemical reagents to remove nitrogen present
in lake water. Table 8.6 presents the retention time of phytoremediation by several researchers to remove pollutants. In the phytoremediation process to remove
pollutants, there are two main limitations that require consideration: slowness and
non-applicability to wastewater with extremely high pollutant content. According
to Mayo and Hanoi (2017) phytoremediation process commonly consumes longer
retention time ranging from 10 days to 3 years for ammonia removal. Ojoawo et al.
(2015) also studied on phytoremediation by using Canna sp. was and able to remove
52% of nitrate in 28 days. Therefore, phytoremediation has been recorded as the
fastest method to remove nutrient in 10 days by using natural treatment and more
practicable method.
8.6.4 Previous Studies on Biofilter and Its Ability to Remove
Pollutants
Previous research of treatments specifically on ammonia removal by using the same
method but different keywords such as phytoremediation and constructed wetland
are illustrated in Table 8.7. In Sim et al. (2008), Phragmites karka and Lepironia
articulate were applied in Putrajaya City, Malaysia to treat agricultural wastewater.
From the study, the plants used can remove 82.11% and 84.32% for total-N (TN) and
total-P (TP), respectively. Konnerup et al. (2009) demonstrated the ability of Heliconia psittacorum and Spathocircinata for nitrogen (N) removal applied in domestic
wastewater and obtained 41% of N removal. Varun and Kalpana (2015) had conducted a study by using water hyacinth on domestic wastewater. The study focused
on the mechanism of phytoremediation and the result showed that the plant removes
up to 67% of ammonia nitrogen (AN). Besides that, Yavari et al. (2017) reported that
using the same mechanism of phytoremediation to treat urea manufacturing wastewater by using Tectona grandis. The plant was able to remove up to 47% and 48% for
TN and TP, respectively. Furthermore, Spartina alterniflora and Juncus roemerianus
also have been studied for their performance in the removal of TN and TP. These
M. S. Miswan et al.
inside plant cells. Rhizofiltration is the sorption of contaminants onto root surface
or other plants parts, or the precipitation in the root zone. Lastly, phytostabilization is the immobilization of compounds in surrounding environment through the
binding of the contaminants and chemicals released by the plant. Mayo and Hanai
(2017) conducted experiment on nitrogen removal and 73.8% was succeeded to be
removed from waste stabilization pond. Meanwhile, Chen et al. (2017) claimed to
remove 57.7% of nitrogen from drainage water. Ojoawo et al. (2015) studied on
phytoremediation of domestic wastewater and removed 51.9% of nitrate. Fang et al.
(2007) stated that phytoremediation removed 76.2% of total nitrogen from eutrophicated water. Depending on the type of pollutants to be remediated by plants, the
mechanisms used are also different, described in Table 8.5.
Phytoremediation is recommended since natural plants are used compared to conventional methods which need costly chemical reagents to remove nitrogen present
in lake water. Table 8.6 presents the retention time of phytoremediation by several researchers to remove pollutants. In the phytoremediation process to remove
pollutants, there are two main limitations that require consideration: slowness and
non-applicability to wastewater with extremely high pollutant content. According
to Mayo and Hanoi (2017) phytoremediation process commonly consumes longer
retention time ranging from 10 days to 3 years for ammonia removal. Ojoawo et al.
(2015) also studied on phytoremediation by using Canna sp. was and able to remove
52% of nitrate in 28 days. Therefore, phytoremediation has been recorded as the
fastest method to remove nutrient in 10 days by using natural treatment and more
practicable method.
8.6.4 Previous Studies on Biofilter and Its Ability to Remove
Pollutants
Previous research of treatments specifically on ammonia removal by using the same
method but different keywords such as phytoremediation and constructed wetland
are illustrated in Table 8.7. In Sim et al. (2008), Phragmites karka and Lepironia
articulate were applied in Putrajaya City, Malaysia to treat agricultural wastewater.
From the study, the plants used can remove 82.11% and 84.32% for total-N (TN) and
total-P (TP), respectively. Konnerup et al. (2009) demonstrated the ability of Heliconia psittacorum and Spathocircinata for nitrogen (N) removal applied in domestic
wastewater and obtained 41% of N removal. Varun and Kalpana (2015) had conducted a study by using water hyacinth on domestic wastewater. The study focused
on the mechanism of phytoremediation and the result showed that the plant removes
up to 67% of ammonia nitrogen (AN). Besides that, Yavari et al. (2017) reported that
using the same mechanism of phytoremediation to treat urea manufacturing wastewater by using Tectona grandis. The plant was able to remove up to 47% and 48% for
TN and TP, respectively. Furthermore, Spartina alterniflora and Juncus roemerianus
also have been studied for their performance in the removal of TN and TP. These