(2017) as organic 1.0, organic 2.0 and organic 3.0. According to Rahmann et al.
(2017), organic 1.0 is that period led by organic pioneers who developed the vision
of organic agriculture (OA); organic 2.0 described a recent period which saw the
growth and marketing of OA, founding of organic research institutes culminating in
the formation of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), whilst organic 3.0 addresses the future challenges and aims at
pushing for OA at a global scale.
The FAO/WHO (1999) Codex Alimentarius Commission has by far given the
most complete definition of organic agriculture, describing it as ‘a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health,
including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasises
the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking
into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as
opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the
system’. Due to the environmental challenges associated with modern agricultural
practices, the period between 1980 and 1990 saw a great revival in organic agriculture (Kirchmann et al. 2008). In simpler terms, organic refers to anything derived
from living matter and in crop-based agriculture, the term organic agriculture loosely
refers to a farming system where plant nutrition is provided for by decomposing
materials of usually of animal or plant origin such as manure and leaf litter. To
understand more the difference between organic and inorganic plant nutrition, it is
important to note that plants can only absorb nutrients in their ionic form. For
example, for the primary fertilizer elements; nitrogen is absorbed as ammonium
(NH 4
+
) or nitrate (NO 3
À ); phosphorus is absorbed as either H 2 PO 4
À or HPO 4
2À
;
whilst potassium is absorbed as K
+
. In inorganic fertilization, mineral nutrients that
are either mined or chemically produced and these mineral salts dissociate in water
when applied to soil thus availing their ionic nutrients for plant uptake instantly.
However, organic fertilizers due to their minerals being organically bound require
soil organisms to facilitate their mineralization over time to convert these nutrients
into their ionic, plant available forms (Masunga et al. 2016).
As outlined by Lotter (2003), ‘in the United States of America, the organic rule in
crop production, which is the focus of this chapter, states that an organic crop
producer must manage soil fertility through use of crop rotations, cover crops and
use plant and animal materials or low solubility natural minerals. These practices
must improve or maintain soil organic matter content, manage deficient or excess
plant nutrients and control erosion to the extent that these functions are applicable to
the operation. The producer must use preventive practices to manage crop pests,
weeds and diseases through use of crop rations, precise nutrient management,
sanitary measures and cultural practices that enhance crop health. Furthermore,
animal manures used must be composted or be applied in soil 120 days before
crop harvest’. It is also important to note that organic agriculture can also refer to
animal production, which limits use of synthetic products during production, though
this is not the focus of this chapter. In crop-based organic and inorganic agriculture,
18 Some Perspectives on Vermicompost Utilization in Organic Agriculture
301
(2017), organic 1.0 is that period led by organic pioneers who developed the vision
of organic agriculture (OA); organic 2.0 described a recent period which saw the
growth and marketing of OA, founding of organic research institutes culminating in
the formation of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), whilst organic 3.0 addresses the future challenges and aims at
pushing for OA at a global scale.
The FAO/WHO (1999) Codex Alimentarius Commission has by far given the
most complete definition of organic agriculture, describing it as ‘a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health,
including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It emphasises
the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking
into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as
opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the
system’. Due to the environmental challenges associated with modern agricultural
practices, the period between 1980 and 1990 saw a great revival in organic agriculture (Kirchmann et al. 2008). In simpler terms, organic refers to anything derived
from living matter and in crop-based agriculture, the term organic agriculture loosely
refers to a farming system where plant nutrition is provided for by decomposing
materials of usually of animal or plant origin such as manure and leaf litter. To
understand more the difference between organic and inorganic plant nutrition, it is
important to note that plants can only absorb nutrients in their ionic form. For
example, for the primary fertilizer elements; nitrogen is absorbed as ammonium
(NH 4
+
) or nitrate (NO 3
À ); phosphorus is absorbed as either H 2 PO 4
À or HPO 4
2À
;
whilst potassium is absorbed as K
+
. In inorganic fertilization, mineral nutrients that
are either mined or chemically produced and these mineral salts dissociate in water
when applied to soil thus availing their ionic nutrients for plant uptake instantly.
However, organic fertilizers due to their minerals being organically bound require
soil organisms to facilitate their mineralization over time to convert these nutrients
into their ionic, plant available forms (Masunga et al. 2016).
As outlined by Lotter (2003), ‘in the United States of America, the organic rule in
crop production, which is the focus of this chapter, states that an organic crop
producer must manage soil fertility through use of crop rotations, cover crops and
use plant and animal materials or low solubility natural minerals. These practices
must improve or maintain soil organic matter content, manage deficient or excess
plant nutrients and control erosion to the extent that these functions are applicable to
the operation. The producer must use preventive practices to manage crop pests,
weeds and diseases through use of crop rations, precise nutrient management,
sanitary measures and cultural practices that enhance crop health. Furthermore,
animal manures used must be composted or be applied in soil 120 days before
crop harvest’. It is also important to note that organic agriculture can also refer to
animal production, which limits use of synthetic products during production, though
this is not the focus of this chapter. In crop-based organic and inorganic agriculture,
18 Some Perspectives on Vermicompost Utilization in Organic Agriculture
301