101
mass balance approach (i.e., by difference), the large uncertainty in some measurements means that using the remainder to estimate sediment impacts is not useful for
injury analysis, for example, in the Ixtoc overestimation by Jernelöv and Lindén
(Jernelöv and Lindén 1981). Laboratory measurements can be used to test the
mechanisms of marine snow formation but should be interpreted with caution, especially in cases where field concentrations of biological material or oil are exceeded.
In the field, sediment traps can be used to determine the amount and nature of
sinking oiled marine snow and can provide an estimate of the flux of oil to the sediment. While logistically challenging, it is also beneficial to directly measure petroleum in sediments to determine whether injury has occurred, and it is important that
methods clearly differentiate between petroleum and petrocarbon.
In addition to discrete sample collection and laboratory analysis, new methods
have emerged to follow oil in the ocean, including remote sensing techniques and
oil spill models. Complex computational models are increasingly important in
understanding the fate of spilled oil, as they can fill in gaps in time and space for
which data are unavailable or unobtainable. However, these tools are limited based
on the quality of the input data and ultimately rely on incorporating the field and
experimental measurements discussed above. Models must recognize the speed of
biodegradation of dispersed oil—oceanographic models that treat oil as if it were a
persistent dye will massively mislead the public, even if traces of very biodegraded
oil do indeed reach as far as the models suggest (Maltrud et al. 2010). While it is
impossible to predict the exact biodegradation rate of a spilled oil in a given place
and time, good experimental data, using realistic temperatures, organisms, and
nutrient levels, are available to incorporate biodegradation processes into models,
resulting in improved prediction of oil fates.
References
Aeppli C, Carmichael CA, Nelson RK, Lemkau KL, Graham WM, Redmond MC, Valentine DL,
Reddy CM (2012) Oil weathering after the Deepwater Horizon disaster led to the formation of
oxygenated residues. Environ Sci Technol 46(16):8799–8807
American Petroleum Institute (2011) Robust summary of information on substance: crude oil,
CAS No. 8002-05-9
Asper VL, Deuser W, Knauer G, Lohrenz SE (1992) Rapid coupling of sinking particle fluxes
between surface and deep ocean waters. Nature 357(6380):670
Atlas RM, Hazen TC (2011) Oil biodegradation and bioremediation: a tale of the two worst spills
in US history. Environ Sci Technol 45:6709–6715
Atlas RM, Stoeckel DM, Faith SA, Minard-Smith A, Thorn JR, Benotti MJ (2015) Oil biodegradation and oil-degrading microbial populations in marsh sediments impacted by oil from the
Deepwater horizon well blowout. Environ Sci Technol 49(14):8356–8366
Audunson T (1980) The fate and weathering of surface oil from the Bravo blowout. Mar Environ
Res 3(1):35–61
Bagby SC, Reddy CM, Aeppli C, Fisher GB, Valentine DL (2017) Persistence and biodegradation
of oil at the ocean floor following Deepwater Horizon. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114(1):E9–E18
Barrera D, Ortiz D, Yarranton H (2013) Molecular weight and density distributions of asphaltenes
from crude oils. Energy Fuel 27(5):2474–2487
6 The Importance of Understanding Transport and Degradation of Oil and Gasses…
mass balance approach (i.e., by difference), the large uncertainty in some measurements means that using the remainder to estimate sediment impacts is not useful for
injury analysis, for example, in the Ixtoc overestimation by Jernelöv and Lindén
(Jernelöv and Lindén 1981). Laboratory measurements can be used to test the
mechanisms of marine snow formation but should be interpreted with caution, especially in cases where field concentrations of biological material or oil are exceeded.
In the field, sediment traps can be used to determine the amount and nature of
sinking oiled marine snow and can provide an estimate of the flux of oil to the sediment. While logistically challenging, it is also beneficial to directly measure petroleum in sediments to determine whether injury has occurred, and it is important that
methods clearly differentiate between petroleum and petrocarbon.
In addition to discrete sample collection and laboratory analysis, new methods
have emerged to follow oil in the ocean, including remote sensing techniques and
oil spill models. Complex computational models are increasingly important in
understanding the fate of spilled oil, as they can fill in gaps in time and space for
which data are unavailable or unobtainable. However, these tools are limited based
on the quality of the input data and ultimately rely on incorporating the field and
experimental measurements discussed above. Models must recognize the speed of
biodegradation of dispersed oil—oceanographic models that treat oil as if it were a
persistent dye will massively mislead the public, even if traces of very biodegraded
oil do indeed reach as far as the models suggest (Maltrud et al. 2010). While it is
impossible to predict the exact biodegradation rate of a spilled oil in a given place
and time, good experimental data, using realistic temperatures, organisms, and
nutrient levels, are available to incorporate biodegradation processes into models,
resulting in improved prediction of oil fates.
References
Aeppli C, Carmichael CA, Nelson RK, Lemkau KL, Graham WM, Redmond MC, Valentine DL,
Reddy CM (2012) Oil weathering after the Deepwater Horizon disaster led to the formation of
oxygenated residues. Environ Sci Technol 46(16):8799–8807
American Petroleum Institute (2011) Robust summary of information on substance: crude oil,
CAS No. 8002-05-9
Asper VL, Deuser W, Knauer G, Lohrenz SE (1992) Rapid coupling of sinking particle fluxes
between surface and deep ocean waters. Nature 357(6380):670
Atlas RM, Hazen TC (2011) Oil biodegradation and bioremediation: a tale of the two worst spills
in US history. Environ Sci Technol 45:6709–6715
Atlas RM, Stoeckel DM, Faith SA, Minard-Smith A, Thorn JR, Benotti MJ (2015) Oil biodegradation and oil-degrading microbial populations in marsh sediments impacted by oil from the
Deepwater horizon well blowout. Environ Sci Technol 49(14):8356–8366
Audunson T (1980) The fate and weathering of surface oil from the Bravo blowout. Mar Environ
Res 3(1):35–61
Bagby SC, Reddy CM, Aeppli C, Fisher GB, Valentine DL (2017) Persistence and biodegradation
of oil at the ocean floor following Deepwater Horizon. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114(1):E9–E18
Barrera D, Ortiz D, Yarranton H (2013) Molecular weight and density distributions of asphaltenes
from crude oils. Energy Fuel 27(5):2474–2487
6 The Importance of Understanding Transport and Degradation of Oil and Gasses…