238
M. A. M. Osman and M. A. Shebl
or the improvement of crop yield through enhancement of biodiversity, which may
be a sustainable pathway toward greater food supplies. Ecological intensification
of agriculture represents a strategic alternative to improve these drivers of pollinator decline while supporting sustainable food production, by promoting biodiversity
beneficial to agricultural production through management practices such as intercropping, crop rotations, farm-level diversification and reduced agrochemical use.
Ecological intensification in arable fields has been demonstrated to enhance withinfield species richness and abundance of plants considered weeds, by decreasing the
use of inorganic fertilizers and herbicides [132, 133]. Such measures can build highly
diverse pollinator community that is more resilient to climate change.
Therefore, it is important to enact policies and implement actions that provide
different floral resources, including agricultural, urban, pastoral, and plantation landscapes. Such plant diversity can support high diversity of pollinators under proper
management (e.g., [134–138]). Maintaining the diversity and abundance of floral
resources is a key factor in maintaining the diversity of pollinators [139]. For added
resilience to climate, specific attention should be paid to ensure that a phenological
sequence of plants by switching between crop species and varieties is established
that provide bloom along the activity season of insect pollinators [140, 141].
In this context, longer-term monitoring of multiple pressures of climate change
on pollinators and pollinator-dependent plants will help elucidate the mechanisms
underpinning observed shifts, and assessment of mitigation and adaptation options
for these impacts.
8 Conclusion
Pollinators play a key role in food security due to their substantial intrinsic value
by providing pollination services for agriculture ecosystems. Bees are considered
the most important pollinators. Managed honeybees and other wild bee species have
an enormous, unchallenged impact as plant pollinators, both for wild plants and
crops. The value of annual global food production relies on direct contributions
by pollinators is substantial, with estimates between 235 billion and 577 billion
dollars. Recently, there is growing concern about the decline in insect pollinators
across the world. Pollinator decline has become a worldwide issue as its potential
consequences to global food production. The decline in bees is caused by multiple
stresses, including habitat fragmentation and loss, exposure to pathogens, parasites
and pesticides, shortage of food sources, and the impacts of climate change. Climate
change considered the most relevant factor responsible for the decline of insect
pollinators. It is likely to affect the activity of insect pollinators, thereby influencing its
role in crop pollination. Climate change also is likely to alter the pollinator lifecycle,
distribution and their interaction with the prevalence of pests and diseases, affect the
bee-plant interaction, the mismatch between the flowering time and seasonal activity
of bees, lack of floral resources, biological invasion, habitat loss, degradation and
M. A. M. Osman and M. A. Shebl
or the improvement of crop yield through enhancement of biodiversity, which may
be a sustainable pathway toward greater food supplies. Ecological intensification
of agriculture represents a strategic alternative to improve these drivers of pollinator decline while supporting sustainable food production, by promoting biodiversity
beneficial to agricultural production through management practices such as intercropping, crop rotations, farm-level diversification and reduced agrochemical use.
Ecological intensification in arable fields has been demonstrated to enhance withinfield species richness and abundance of plants considered weeds, by decreasing the
use of inorganic fertilizers and herbicides [132, 133]. Such measures can build highly
diverse pollinator community that is more resilient to climate change.
Therefore, it is important to enact policies and implement actions that provide
different floral resources, including agricultural, urban, pastoral, and plantation landscapes. Such plant diversity can support high diversity of pollinators under proper
management (e.g., [134–138]). Maintaining the diversity and abundance of floral
resources is a key factor in maintaining the diversity of pollinators [139]. For added
resilience to climate, specific attention should be paid to ensure that a phenological
sequence of plants by switching between crop species and varieties is established
that provide bloom along the activity season of insect pollinators [140, 141].
In this context, longer-term monitoring of multiple pressures of climate change
on pollinators and pollinator-dependent plants will help elucidate the mechanisms
underpinning observed shifts, and assessment of mitigation and adaptation options
for these impacts.
8 Conclusion
Pollinators play a key role in food security due to their substantial intrinsic value
by providing pollination services for agriculture ecosystems. Bees are considered
the most important pollinators. Managed honeybees and other wild bee species have
an enormous, unchallenged impact as plant pollinators, both for wild plants and
crops. The value of annual global food production relies on direct contributions
by pollinators is substantial, with estimates between 235 billion and 577 billion
dollars. Recently, there is growing concern about the decline in insect pollinators
across the world. Pollinator decline has become a worldwide issue as its potential
consequences to global food production. The decline in bees is caused by multiple
stresses, including habitat fragmentation and loss, exposure to pathogens, parasites
and pesticides, shortage of food sources, and the impacts of climate change. Climate
change considered the most relevant factor responsible for the decline of insect
pollinators. It is likely to affect the activity of insect pollinators, thereby influencing its
role in crop pollination. Climate change also is likely to alter the pollinator lifecycle,
distribution and their interaction with the prevalence of pests and diseases, affect the
bee-plant interaction, the mismatch between the flowering time and seasonal activity
of bees, lack of floral resources, biological invasion, habitat loss, degradation and