25 ng/L). They suggested that biosensors constitute detection methods more easily to
be transferred to continuous on in-the-field monitoring applications than highperformance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, or capillary electrophoresis. Authors used the sensor to quantify diclofenac in real samples of tap water [63].
Finally, an accurate and sensitive micro UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed
and validated by Márta et al. for the simultaneous determination of ten nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) from different environmental matrices, including
drinking tap water. Limits of detection ranged from 0.001 ng/L for indomethacin to
0.05 ng/L for acetylsalicylic acid and limits of quantification from 0.005 ng/L for
indomethacin to 0.1 ng/L for acetylsalicylic acid. NSAIDs were not detected in
higher concentration than the LOD values. Since pharmaceutical compounds occur
in very low concentrations in environmental matrices, the very low LOQ values
achieved by the developed method make it very useful to quantify NSAIDs from real
samples and for routine water analysis [64].
6 Discussion and Final Thoughts
In this chapter it was shown that there is a great amount of research related to the
presence of NSAIDs in water bodies to date and that the approaches of such
investigations are very diverse, useful, and innovative.
Our systematic review certainly has limitations that are important to highlight. On
the one hand, the search through MeSH terms can lead to the inadvertent omission of
several studies caused by the manual and human allocation methodology made of
these terms. Also, by focusing our search solely on PubMed, other published studies
may also have been omitted. The MeSH database is a very useful tool since it offers
controlled vocabulary and well-identified concepts. However, the combination of
MeSH terms with natural language terms, synonyms, and alternative terms may have
optimized the search strategy and the information retrieval. However, we believe that
our sample was sufficiently large to demonstrate the state of the art of world research
on NSAIDs as water pollutants.
Acetaminophen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, naproxen,
mefenamic acid, and salicylates are the NSAIDs investigated and most frequently
detected in all studies. On the contrary, etodolac, felbinac, piroxicam, nimesulide,
and flurbiprofen are very little studied due to their patterns of use by the population
in different countries. This evidence points to the need to prioritize the detection of
specific NSAIDs in different types of water based on their consumption in each
region of the world. In fact, just as the case of the occurrence of drugs of abuse in
surface waters (e.g., environmental cocaine levels) has been considered as an
approach with the unique potential ability to monitor local drug abuse trends in
real time [65], also the detection of NSAIDs in the different types of water can bring
us closer to their magnitude and trends of use as well as to the practices of inadequate
and indiscriminate disposition that a population may be doing with these medicinal
products.
Worldwide Occurrence, Detection, and Fate of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
77
be transferred to continuous on in-the-field monitoring applications than highperformance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, or capillary electrophoresis. Authors used the sensor to quantify diclofenac in real samples of tap water [63].
Finally, an accurate and sensitive micro UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed
and validated by Márta et al. for the simultaneous determination of ten nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) from different environmental matrices, including
drinking tap water. Limits of detection ranged from 0.001 ng/L for indomethacin to
0.05 ng/L for acetylsalicylic acid and limits of quantification from 0.005 ng/L for
indomethacin to 0.1 ng/L for acetylsalicylic acid. NSAIDs were not detected in
higher concentration than the LOD values. Since pharmaceutical compounds occur
in very low concentrations in environmental matrices, the very low LOQ values
achieved by the developed method make it very useful to quantify NSAIDs from real
samples and for routine water analysis [64].
6 Discussion and Final Thoughts
In this chapter it was shown that there is a great amount of research related to the
presence of NSAIDs in water bodies to date and that the approaches of such
investigations are very diverse, useful, and innovative.
Our systematic review certainly has limitations that are important to highlight. On
the one hand, the search through MeSH terms can lead to the inadvertent omission of
several studies caused by the manual and human allocation methodology made of
these terms. Also, by focusing our search solely on PubMed, other published studies
may also have been omitted. The MeSH database is a very useful tool since it offers
controlled vocabulary and well-identified concepts. However, the combination of
MeSH terms with natural language terms, synonyms, and alternative terms may have
optimized the search strategy and the information retrieval. However, we believe that
our sample was sufficiently large to demonstrate the state of the art of world research
on NSAIDs as water pollutants.
Acetaminophen, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indomethacin, ketoprofen, naproxen,
mefenamic acid, and salicylates are the NSAIDs investigated and most frequently
detected in all studies. On the contrary, etodolac, felbinac, piroxicam, nimesulide,
and flurbiprofen are very little studied due to their patterns of use by the population
in different countries. This evidence points to the need to prioritize the detection of
specific NSAIDs in different types of water based on their consumption in each
region of the world. In fact, just as the case of the occurrence of drugs of abuse in
surface waters (e.g., environmental cocaine levels) has been considered as an
approach with the unique potential ability to monitor local drug abuse trends in
real time [65], also the detection of NSAIDs in the different types of water can bring
us closer to their magnitude and trends of use as well as to the practices of inadequate
and indiscriminate disposition that a population may be doing with these medicinal
products.
Worldwide Occurrence, Detection, and Fate of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
77