4 Groundwater
Figure 3 details the defined inclusion criteria used for study selection, and Table 6
presents the summary of the included studies reporting the prevalence of NSAIDs in
groundwater.
Velpandian et al. analyzed many drugs in groundwater samples (aquifers) from
35 locations around Delhi and National Capital Region. Diclofenac was found at
higher levels in aquifers as compared to surface waters (Yamuna River). The authors
determined the Predicted Free Drug Levels (PFDL) in the aquifers based on the
annual drug consumption data collection from the Central Government Health
Scheme (CGHS) in India. Diclofenac usage was estimated to be
188.17 kg/million/year; thus PFDL was calculated as 1.88 kg/million/year. Based
on this, the expected free drug would be 1.88 μg/L, but in aquifers (200 m from
landfill) concentrations measured were 1,390 μg/L. The lack of correlation showed
that several factors were involved in the occurrence of diclofenac and other drugs in
the aquifers. Particularly, an unscientific landfill where the un-segregated garbage
was being dumped and the active leach continuously drained into the water bodies
was found to be responsible for the presence of drugs in groundwater. From these
results, authors strongly recommended the implementation of the policy for the
segregation and destruction of bioactive compounds in densely populated places to
avoid their accumulation in the environment [24].
The other study included in our review was carried out by Paíga and DelerueMatos in 2016 through an interesting approach by analyzing groundwater from five
cemetery areas since those places may have serious environmental consequences,
particularly on quality of adjacent groundwater. The study assessed 33 different
pharmaceuticals, NSAIDs among them. Salicylic acid, ibuprofen, and ketoprofen
were the NSAIDs present in all samples with 100% of detection frequency. Acetaminophen and nimesulide were also detected and quantified. Only salicylic acid
was found in relatively high concentrations [61].
Even when literature is scarce, it is clear that in terms of public health, the
continuous investigation and monitoring of groundwater and the substances polluting it is of paramount importance.
5 Drinking Water
For water potabilization from rivers, oceans, or groundwater sources, drinking water
treatment plants (DWTPs) usually apply combinations of several processes such as
preoxidation with chlorine, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, sand filtration,
ultrafiltration, postchlorination, disinfection, desalination, ozonization, or granularactivated carbon treatments [62]. Raw water sources have demonstrated the presence
of several pharmaceuticals, some of them in high concentrations, which makes them
Worldwide Occurrence, Detection, and Fate of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
75
Figure 3 details the defined inclusion criteria used for study selection, and Table 6
presents the summary of the included studies reporting the prevalence of NSAIDs in
groundwater.
Velpandian et al. analyzed many drugs in groundwater samples (aquifers) from
35 locations around Delhi and National Capital Region. Diclofenac was found at
higher levels in aquifers as compared to surface waters (Yamuna River). The authors
determined the Predicted Free Drug Levels (PFDL) in the aquifers based on the
annual drug consumption data collection from the Central Government Health
Scheme (CGHS) in India. Diclofenac usage was estimated to be
188.17 kg/million/year; thus PFDL was calculated as 1.88 kg/million/year. Based
on this, the expected free drug would be 1.88 μg/L, but in aquifers (200 m from
landfill) concentrations measured were 1,390 μg/L. The lack of correlation showed
that several factors were involved in the occurrence of diclofenac and other drugs in
the aquifers. Particularly, an unscientific landfill where the un-segregated garbage
was being dumped and the active leach continuously drained into the water bodies
was found to be responsible for the presence of drugs in groundwater. From these
results, authors strongly recommended the implementation of the policy for the
segregation and destruction of bioactive compounds in densely populated places to
avoid their accumulation in the environment [24].
The other study included in our review was carried out by Paíga and DelerueMatos in 2016 through an interesting approach by analyzing groundwater from five
cemetery areas since those places may have serious environmental consequences,
particularly on quality of adjacent groundwater. The study assessed 33 different
pharmaceuticals, NSAIDs among them. Salicylic acid, ibuprofen, and ketoprofen
were the NSAIDs present in all samples with 100% of detection frequency. Acetaminophen and nimesulide were also detected and quantified. Only salicylic acid
was found in relatively high concentrations [61].
Even when literature is scarce, it is clear that in terms of public health, the
continuous investigation and monitoring of groundwater and the substances polluting it is of paramount importance.
5 Drinking Water
For water potabilization from rivers, oceans, or groundwater sources, drinking water
treatment plants (DWTPs) usually apply combinations of several processes such as
preoxidation with chlorine, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, sand filtration,
ultrafiltration, postchlorination, disinfection, desalination, ozonization, or granularactivated carbon treatments [62]. Raw water sources have demonstrated the presence
of several pharmaceuticals, some of them in high concentrations, which makes them
Worldwide Occurrence, Detection, and Fate of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory. . .
75