0.02–0.2 μg/L, respectively [13]. Besides, Khan et al. [14] in Mardan City, Pakistan,
showed that four NSAIDs (paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and codeine) were
found in sewage and surface water of River Kabul and River Indus, at different
concentrations; in particular, paracetamol was found at the higher end (32.4 μg/L) of
the reported ranges in literature for other countries, and river samples showed that
the target compounds were usually lower in concentration than the respective EC 50
values for aquatic organisms [14].
In the first report on the occurrence of NSAIDs in Indian rivers, Shanmugam and
co-workers, in 2014, determined the concentrations of diclofenac, ketoprofen,
naproxen, ibuprofen, and acetylsalicylic acid in surface waters from 27 locations
of the Kaveri, Vellar, and Tamiraparani rivers; all NSAIDs were found in concentration ranging from not detected to 200 ng/L, except for acetylsalicylic acid, which
was found at all sites at considerably higher concentrations up to 660 ng/L, which
represents risks of direct toxicity to aquatic wildlife [15]. Meanwhile, a study
performed in Tehran, Iran, showed that NSAIDs were present in samples from
surface, drinking, and wastewater. The highest concentrations of NSAIDs were
found in the municipal WWTP influents where ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac,
and indomethacin were found at 1.05, 0.43, 0.23, and 0.11 μg/L, respectively, while
in tap water samples, their concentration was very low, and the maximum values
were 47, 39, 24, and 37 ng/L, respectively, and, due to their low measured concentrations, no ecotoxicological effect is suspected to occur [16].
The analysis of influent and effluent wastewater and sludge samples from 3 conventional WWTPs in Catalonia (Spain) showed that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs such as ketoprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac were present in 72 samples
recollecting over a period of 2 years, in concentrations ranging from low ng/L to a
few μg/L, and were present in the highest percentage (35–40%) in effluents water
samples, in comparison with other 43 pharmaceutical compounds analyzed [17],
while acetaminophen, ketoprofen, and the metabolites hydroxyibuprofen and
carboxyibuprofen were detected in seawater samples from Portuguese coast at
concentrations of 584, 89.7, 287, and 1,227 ng/L, respectively. On the other hand,
the environmental risk in seawaters toward different trophic levels (fish, daphnids,
and algae) was also assessed, and only diclofenac showed hazard quotients above
1 for fish, representing a potential risk for aquatic organisms [18].
Madikizela and Chimuka [19] showed that naproxen, ibuprofen, and diclofenac
were present in water samples from Mbokodweni River and WWTPs located around
the city of Durban in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. The NSAIDs were
found at maximum concentrations of 6.84, 19.2, and 9.69 μg/L, respectively
[19]. Besides, the drugs analyzed by Agunbiade and Moodley [20] in wastewater,
surface water, and sediment samples from the Msunduzi River in the province of
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, showed that aspirin was the most abundant pharmaceutical observed (118 Æ 0.82 μg/L) in wastewater influent and that the downstream
distribution patterns for both water and sediment indicate discharge contributions
from wastewater, agricultural activities, domestic waste disposal, and possible sewer
system leakages [20].
44
A. Mejía-García et al.
showed that four NSAIDs (paracetamol, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and codeine) were
found in sewage and surface water of River Kabul and River Indus, at different
concentrations; in particular, paracetamol was found at the higher end (32.4 μg/L) of
the reported ranges in literature for other countries, and river samples showed that
the target compounds were usually lower in concentration than the respective EC 50
values for aquatic organisms [14].
In the first report on the occurrence of NSAIDs in Indian rivers, Shanmugam and
co-workers, in 2014, determined the concentrations of diclofenac, ketoprofen,
naproxen, ibuprofen, and acetylsalicylic acid in surface waters from 27 locations
of the Kaveri, Vellar, and Tamiraparani rivers; all NSAIDs were found in concentration ranging from not detected to 200 ng/L, except for acetylsalicylic acid, which
was found at all sites at considerably higher concentrations up to 660 ng/L, which
represents risks of direct toxicity to aquatic wildlife [15]. Meanwhile, a study
performed in Tehran, Iran, showed that NSAIDs were present in samples from
surface, drinking, and wastewater. The highest concentrations of NSAIDs were
found in the municipal WWTP influents where ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac,
and indomethacin were found at 1.05, 0.43, 0.23, and 0.11 μg/L, respectively, while
in tap water samples, their concentration was very low, and the maximum values
were 47, 39, 24, and 37 ng/L, respectively, and, due to their low measured concentrations, no ecotoxicological effect is suspected to occur [16].
The analysis of influent and effluent wastewater and sludge samples from 3 conventional WWTPs in Catalonia (Spain) showed that non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs such as ketoprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac were present in 72 samples
recollecting over a period of 2 years, in concentrations ranging from low ng/L to a
few μg/L, and were present in the highest percentage (35–40%) in effluents water
samples, in comparison with other 43 pharmaceutical compounds analyzed [17],
while acetaminophen, ketoprofen, and the metabolites hydroxyibuprofen and
carboxyibuprofen were detected in seawater samples from Portuguese coast at
concentrations of 584, 89.7, 287, and 1,227 ng/L, respectively. On the other hand,
the environmental risk in seawaters toward different trophic levels (fish, daphnids,
and algae) was also assessed, and only diclofenac showed hazard quotients above
1 for fish, representing a potential risk for aquatic organisms [18].
Madikizela and Chimuka [19] showed that naproxen, ibuprofen, and diclofenac
were present in water samples from Mbokodweni River and WWTPs located around
the city of Durban in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. The NSAIDs were
found at maximum concentrations of 6.84, 19.2, and 9.69 μg/L, respectively
[19]. Besides, the drugs analyzed by Agunbiade and Moodley [20] in wastewater,
surface water, and sediment samples from the Msunduzi River in the province of
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, showed that aspirin was the most abundant pharmaceutical observed (118 Æ 0.82 μg/L) in wastewater influent and that the downstream
distribution patterns for both water and sediment indicate discharge contributions
from wastewater, agricultural activities, domestic waste disposal, and possible sewer
system leakages [20].
44
A. Mejía-García et al.