Indian subcontinent [9]; for this reason, the aim of this review is to provide a detailed
overview about the presence of NSAIDs in aquatic environmental, in particular to
summarizing the main toxicological effects on living organisms and occurrence in
water bodies that has been documented.
2 Occurrence of NSAIDs in Water Bodies
Emergent contaminants from different sectors such as industrial, agricultural, and
pharmaceutical are found in water bodies with considerable endocrine disruptor
potency and can damage the biotic components of the environment, and their
presence in different environmental matrices is a serious and unresolved concern
and has been related to land use patterns and various human activities [1, 3].
The occurrence of pharmaceuticals used as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) in the aquatic environment is a threat to humans and aquatic species at
large [10]. Thousands of tons of pharmaceuticals are introduced into the aqueous
environment due to their incomplete elimination during treatment process in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and water treatment plants (WTPs) [11]. It has
been reported that the principal pathways of EC to enter the aquatic environment are
excretion of human waste such as urine and feces and discharge of effluents through
sewage treatment plants [8, 10], but these compounds have been found in different
environmental matrices, such as water reservoirs for human consumption, WWTPs,
drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), groundwaters, surface waters, rivers, and
seas, which demonstrate their free movement within the environment in an
uncontrolled manner [3]; in particular, the WWTPs have been identified as a major
route for release of pharmaceuticals in aquatic bodies where concentrations ranging
from ng/L to μg/L are ubiquitously detected [4].
According to the literature, the profile of NSAIDs was dominated by acetaminophen in wastewater influents and effluents, and ibuprofen was the most abundant
NSAID in surface water, and majority of NSAIDs were detected in solid matrices at
below 1 μg/g except for ketoprofen, diclofenac, and ibuprofen [7].
Patrolecco et al. [12] provided data on the occurrence of selected human pharmaceuticals, including NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen, which
were found in influents/effluents to/from the four principal wastewater treatment
plants serving the city of Rome (Italy), in a range from 5 to 2,230 ng/L in influents
and from 5 to 1,424 ng/L in effluents, indicating that after the treatment processes,
most of pharmaceuticals were not completely eliminated, as average removal efficiencies were in the 14–100% [12].
The transformation products of diclofenac were identified by Scheurell et al. [13]
in Malir River and Lyari River water as well as in effluent samples from Karachi,
Pakistan, at μg/L concentrations: 3
0 -hydroxydiclofenac (0.08–0.3 μg/L),
8-chlorocarbazole-1-yl-ethanoic acid (0.03–0.4 μg/L), and 4
0 - and
5-hydroxydiclofenac as well as 1-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-indol-2one were detected in the samples at concentrations between 0.4–1.8, 0.01–0.3, and
Overview of Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs as Emerging Contaminants
43
overview about the presence of NSAIDs in aquatic environmental, in particular to
summarizing the main toxicological effects on living organisms and occurrence in
water bodies that has been documented.
2 Occurrence of NSAIDs in Water Bodies
Emergent contaminants from different sectors such as industrial, agricultural, and
pharmaceutical are found in water bodies with considerable endocrine disruptor
potency and can damage the biotic components of the environment, and their
presence in different environmental matrices is a serious and unresolved concern
and has been related to land use patterns and various human activities [1, 3].
The occurrence of pharmaceuticals used as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) in the aquatic environment is a threat to humans and aquatic species at
large [10]. Thousands of tons of pharmaceuticals are introduced into the aqueous
environment due to their incomplete elimination during treatment process in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and water treatment plants (WTPs) [11]. It has
been reported that the principal pathways of EC to enter the aquatic environment are
excretion of human waste such as urine and feces and discharge of effluents through
sewage treatment plants [8, 10], but these compounds have been found in different
environmental matrices, such as water reservoirs for human consumption, WWTPs,
drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), groundwaters, surface waters, rivers, and
seas, which demonstrate their free movement within the environment in an
uncontrolled manner [3]; in particular, the WWTPs have been identified as a major
route for release of pharmaceuticals in aquatic bodies where concentrations ranging
from ng/L to μg/L are ubiquitously detected [4].
According to the literature, the profile of NSAIDs was dominated by acetaminophen in wastewater influents and effluents, and ibuprofen was the most abundant
NSAID in surface water, and majority of NSAIDs were detected in solid matrices at
below 1 μg/g except for ketoprofen, diclofenac, and ibuprofen [7].
Patrolecco et al. [12] provided data on the occurrence of selected human pharmaceuticals, including NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen, which
were found in influents/effluents to/from the four principal wastewater treatment
plants serving the city of Rome (Italy), in a range from 5 to 2,230 ng/L in influents
and from 5 to 1,424 ng/L in effluents, indicating that after the treatment processes,
most of pharmaceuticals were not completely eliminated, as average removal efficiencies were in the 14–100% [12].
The transformation products of diclofenac were identified by Scheurell et al. [13]
in Malir River and Lyari River water as well as in effluent samples from Karachi,
Pakistan, at μg/L concentrations: 3
0 -hydroxydiclofenac (0.08–0.3 μg/L),
8-chlorocarbazole-1-yl-ethanoic acid (0.03–0.4 μg/L), and 4
0 - and
5-hydroxydiclofenac as well as 1-(2,6-dichlorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-indol-2one were detected in the samples at concentrations between 0.4–1.8, 0.01–0.3, and
Overview of Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs as Emerging Contaminants
43