without effect (NOEC) was obtained from toxicity tests performed in the study for
pharmaceutical compounds. The expected environmental concentration (PEC) was
also calculated based on annual consumption, excretion rate, and disposal rate in the
preliminary treatment of activated sludge. In the study, they found a PEC/PNEC
ratio greater than 0.01 for acetaminophen (0.036) and for ibuprofen (0.066). This
assessment does not suggest an urgent or serious concern about the ecological risk of
these compounds; however, the authors suggest further studies using chronic toxicity tests, including evaluations of endocrine disruption and reproduction.
Kim et al. [21] studied four of the most widely used pharmaceutical products in
Korea, including acetaminophen. For toxicity tests, they used a marine bacterium
(Vibrio fischeri), a freshwater invertebrate (Daphnia magna), and the Japanese
medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). In general, Daphnia was the most susceptible
among the test organisms. The expected environmental concentrations (PEC)
obtained for pharmaceutical products ranged from 0.14 to 16.5 μg L
À1 , the latter
for acetaminophen. The calculated risk ratio for acetaminophen was 1.8, which
suggests possible environmental concerns and the need for further research,
according to the authors.
In Santos et al. [22]’s study, the presence of four anti-inflammatories (diclofenac,
ibuprofen, ketoprofen and naproxen) was evaluated in samples from four wastewater
treatment plants in Seville, Spain. In addition, elimination rates in treatment plants
and risk assessment of pharmaceutical compounds were studied. Ibuprofen had the
highest concentrations in the range of 12.13–373.11 μg L
À1 and 0.78–48.24 μg L
À1
in influent and effluent wastewater, respectively; followed by naproxen
(1.10–27.40 μg L
À1 and 0.22–4.28 μg L
À1 ) and ketoprofen (0–3.59 μg L
À1 and
0–1.50 μg L
À1 ). The estimation of the average environmental concentration (MEC)
in influent and effluent samples, the expected concentrations without effect (PNEC),
and the risk ratios (MEC/PNEC) for aquatic organisms was made. The risk quotient
for ketoprofen was less than one in both influent (RQ ¼ 0.23) and effluent
(RQ ¼ 0.10) wastewater; therefore, no ecological risk is expected to occur. The
risk ratios for ibuprofen were 41.18 and 5.32 for influent and effluent wastewater,
respectively. This means that despite the significant decrease in the concentration of
ibuprofen due to wastewater treatments, there is still an ecological risk in effluent
wastewater. Finally, the risk quotient of naproxen was greater than one (RQ ¼ 1.28)
in influent wastewater but less than one (RQ ¼ 0.20) in effluent wastewater, which
indicates that any ecological risk due to naproxen has been considerably reduced
after the treatment of wastewater.
In Martín et al. [23]’s study, an evaluation was carried out of the presence of
16 pharmaceutical compounds present in wastewater (influents and effluents) and in
primary, secondary, and digested sludge, in the city of Seville, in southern Spain,
over a period of 1 year. In addition, the ecotoxicological risk for aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems was evaluated, due to wastewater discharges to receiving
currents and the application of digested sludge as fertilizers in soils. All compounds
found in wastewater were also found in sewage sludge at average concentrations of
8.1–2,206 μg kg
À1 , except diclofenac. Among the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs, ibuprofen and salicylic acid were the compounds that had the highest
326
J. D. Cardoso-Vera et al.
pharmaceutical compounds. The expected environmental concentration (PEC) was
also calculated based on annual consumption, excretion rate, and disposal rate in the
preliminary treatment of activated sludge. In the study, they found a PEC/PNEC
ratio greater than 0.01 for acetaminophen (0.036) and for ibuprofen (0.066). This
assessment does not suggest an urgent or serious concern about the ecological risk of
these compounds; however, the authors suggest further studies using chronic toxicity tests, including evaluations of endocrine disruption and reproduction.
Kim et al. [21] studied four of the most widely used pharmaceutical products in
Korea, including acetaminophen. For toxicity tests, they used a marine bacterium
(Vibrio fischeri), a freshwater invertebrate (Daphnia magna), and the Japanese
medaka fish (Oryzias latipes). In general, Daphnia was the most susceptible
among the test organisms. The expected environmental concentrations (PEC)
obtained for pharmaceutical products ranged from 0.14 to 16.5 μg L
À1 , the latter
for acetaminophen. The calculated risk ratio for acetaminophen was 1.8, which
suggests possible environmental concerns and the need for further research,
according to the authors.
In Santos et al. [22]’s study, the presence of four anti-inflammatories (diclofenac,
ibuprofen, ketoprofen and naproxen) was evaluated in samples from four wastewater
treatment plants in Seville, Spain. In addition, elimination rates in treatment plants
and risk assessment of pharmaceutical compounds were studied. Ibuprofen had the
highest concentrations in the range of 12.13–373.11 μg L
À1 and 0.78–48.24 μg L
À1
in influent and effluent wastewater, respectively; followed by naproxen
(1.10–27.40 μg L
À1 and 0.22–4.28 μg L
À1 ) and ketoprofen (0–3.59 μg L
À1 and
0–1.50 μg L
À1 ). The estimation of the average environmental concentration (MEC)
in influent and effluent samples, the expected concentrations without effect (PNEC),
and the risk ratios (MEC/PNEC) for aquatic organisms was made. The risk quotient
for ketoprofen was less than one in both influent (RQ ¼ 0.23) and effluent
(RQ ¼ 0.10) wastewater; therefore, no ecological risk is expected to occur. The
risk ratios for ibuprofen were 41.18 and 5.32 for influent and effluent wastewater,
respectively. This means that despite the significant decrease in the concentration of
ibuprofen due to wastewater treatments, there is still an ecological risk in effluent
wastewater. Finally, the risk quotient of naproxen was greater than one (RQ ¼ 1.28)
in influent wastewater but less than one (RQ ¼ 0.20) in effluent wastewater, which
indicates that any ecological risk due to naproxen has been considerably reduced
after the treatment of wastewater.
In Martín et al. [23]’s study, an evaluation was carried out of the presence of
16 pharmaceutical compounds present in wastewater (influents and effluents) and in
primary, secondary, and digested sludge, in the city of Seville, in southern Spain,
over a period of 1 year. In addition, the ecotoxicological risk for aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems was evaluated, due to wastewater discharges to receiving
currents and the application of digested sludge as fertilizers in soils. All compounds
found in wastewater were also found in sewage sludge at average concentrations of
8.1–2,206 μg kg
À1 , except diclofenac. Among the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs, ibuprofen and salicylic acid were the compounds that had the highest
326
J. D. Cardoso-Vera et al.