been extensively used for therapeutic purposes in both humans and domestic
livestock. The negative effects of NSAIDs on aquatic biota are just beginning to
be realized. Currently, intensive treatments are required to remove effectively
NSAIDs from recycled treated effluent in order to minimize or eliminate risks to
human health and aquatic environment. In this chapter, we focus the discussion on
contemporary methods for NSAID removal including biological, physical, chemical,
and combined process that may provide a more effective and efficient alternative.
Keywords Advanced oxidation process, Integrated process, Membrane process,
NSAIDs, Water reuse
1 Introduction
Water reclamation refers to the treatment of used water, or wastewater, to the quality
suitable for either potable (e.g., drinking) or non-potable (e.g., irrigation, agricultural
applications, and toilet flushing) use. Water reclamation provides an alternative
source of water that gives an extra level of certainty and security to water supplies
in the face of a changing climate. In recent years, there has been an upward trajectory
in both technology development and full-scale implementation of water reclamation.
For example, NEWater, the trade name of reclaimed water produced in Singapore,
now operates five full-scale NEWater plants that supply up to 40% of Singapore’s
water demand (i.e., water fabrication processes, non-potable applications in
manufacturing processes as well as aircon cooling towers in commercial buildings).
Despite recent advances, there are several barriers to acceptance of water reclamation, including capital and operation costs, presence of emerging contaminants
(ECs), as well as community attitudes. Research efforts to reduce the cost, treat
and remove ECs, and enhance the community awareness are ongoing.
One group of EC of particular concern is the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), which include aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, and paracetamol. NSAIDs are commonly used in our daily life to reduce pain, decrease fever,
prevent blood clots, and decrease inflammation [1]. As a result of this usage, the
presence of NSAIDs in the environment is beginning to receive considerable
attention from the scientific community, public health, and ecological conservation
authorities [2, 3]. The concerns are mainly due to their potential physicochemical
toxicological properties on aquatic biota, although there are currently no environmental protection limits for NSAIDs [2]. NSAIDs have been reported in both
wastewater and the receiving environment at trace levels of ng/L to μg/L, and
while these concentrations may not always be harmful to humans, they are still
considered to be undesirable with regard to the “precautionary principle” [2–4].
Currently, there are no statutory requirements for wastewater and water reclamation plants to monitor the concentrations of NSAIDs in the water which, in most
instances, are not routinely monitored for. However, with increased application of
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L. N. Nguyen et al.
livestock. The negative effects of NSAIDs on aquatic biota are just beginning to
be realized. Currently, intensive treatments are required to remove effectively
NSAIDs from recycled treated effluent in order to minimize or eliminate risks to
human health and aquatic environment. In this chapter, we focus the discussion on
contemporary methods for NSAID removal including biological, physical, chemical,
and combined process that may provide a more effective and efficient alternative.
Keywords Advanced oxidation process, Integrated process, Membrane process,
NSAIDs, Water reuse
1 Introduction
Water reclamation refers to the treatment of used water, or wastewater, to the quality
suitable for either potable (e.g., drinking) or non-potable (e.g., irrigation, agricultural
applications, and toilet flushing) use. Water reclamation provides an alternative
source of water that gives an extra level of certainty and security to water supplies
in the face of a changing climate. In recent years, there has been an upward trajectory
in both technology development and full-scale implementation of water reclamation.
For example, NEWater, the trade name of reclaimed water produced in Singapore,
now operates five full-scale NEWater plants that supply up to 40% of Singapore’s
water demand (i.e., water fabrication processes, non-potable applications in
manufacturing processes as well as aircon cooling towers in commercial buildings).
Despite recent advances, there are several barriers to acceptance of water reclamation, including capital and operation costs, presence of emerging contaminants
(ECs), as well as community attitudes. Research efforts to reduce the cost, treat
and remove ECs, and enhance the community awareness are ongoing.
One group of EC of particular concern is the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), which include aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, and paracetamol. NSAIDs are commonly used in our daily life to reduce pain, decrease fever,
prevent blood clots, and decrease inflammation [1]. As a result of this usage, the
presence of NSAIDs in the environment is beginning to receive considerable
attention from the scientific community, public health, and ecological conservation
authorities [2, 3]. The concerns are mainly due to their potential physicochemical
toxicological properties on aquatic biota, although there are currently no environmental protection limits for NSAIDs [2]. NSAIDs have been reported in both
wastewater and the receiving environment at trace levels of ng/L to μg/L, and
while these concentrations may not always be harmful to humans, they are still
considered to be undesirable with regard to the “precautionary principle” [2–4].
Currently, there are no statutory requirements for wastewater and water reclamation plants to monitor the concentrations of NSAIDs in the water which, in most
instances, are not routinely monitored for. However, with increased application of
218
L. N. Nguyen et al.