3 Conclusions
The results reported in the present review show that three of the most common
NSAIDs found in the aquatic ecosystems worldwide might represent a serious
hazard towards non-target, freshwater invertebrates. In fact, although acute toxicity
of PCM, DCF, and IBU occurs only at high concentrations, much higher than those
measured in freshwaters, sublethal effects due to chronic exposures cannot be
neglected. In fact, studies performed on different model species belonging to
different taxa showed that the exposure to low, environmentally relevant concentrations of PCM, DCF, and IBU can induce notable adverse effects at molecular,
biochemical, and cellular level, while effects at individual level (e.g., growth,
survival, reproduction) seem to be improbable. The sublethal effects pointed out
by short- and mid-term exposures might be also more worrisome considering that
freshwater invertebrates are exposed to NSAID concentrations for their whole
lifespan. In addition, considering the increasing production and use of NSAIDs
might lead to a notable increase in freshwater environmental levels and, consequently, to an enhancement of the hazard of these pharmaceuticals towards
non-target, freshwater invertebrates. For these reasons, further studies should be
needed to enlarge the knowledge on NSAID toxicity towards aquatic organisms,
considering long-term exposures and the use of alternative and innovative assays to
shed light on the mechanisms of action of these pharmaceuticals. Lastly, considering
that NSAIDs occur in aquatic ecosystems in complex “cocktails,” studies of toxicity
of NSAID mixture toxicity should be a priority in environmental risk assessment for
this molecules in order to explore their real ecological hazard towards aquatic
communities.
References
1. Daughton CG, Ternes TA (1999) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change? Environ Health Perspect 107:907–938
2. Ellis JB (2006) Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in urban receiving waters.
Environ Pollut 144(1):184–189
3. Fent K, Weston AA, Caminada D (2006) Ecotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals. Aquat
Toxicol 76(2):122–159
4. Santos LH, Araújo AN, Fachini A, Pena A, Delerue-Matos C, Montenegro MCBSM (2010)
Ecotoxicological aspects related to the presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment.
J Hazard Mater 175(1-3):45–95
5. Boxall AB, Rudd MA, Brooks BW, Caldwell DJ, Choi K, Hickmann S, Innes E, Ostapyk K,
Staveley JP, Verslycke T, Ankley GT (2012) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the
environment: what are the big questions? Environ Health Perspect 120(9):1221–1229
6. Al Aukidy M, Verlicchi P, Voulvoulis N (2014) A framework for the assessment of the
environmental risk posed by pharmaceuticals originating from hospital effluents. Sci Total
Environ 493:54–64
158
M. Parolini
The results reported in the present review show that three of the most common
NSAIDs found in the aquatic ecosystems worldwide might represent a serious
hazard towards non-target, freshwater invertebrates. In fact, although acute toxicity
of PCM, DCF, and IBU occurs only at high concentrations, much higher than those
measured in freshwaters, sublethal effects due to chronic exposures cannot be
neglected. In fact, studies performed on different model species belonging to
different taxa showed that the exposure to low, environmentally relevant concentrations of PCM, DCF, and IBU can induce notable adverse effects at molecular,
biochemical, and cellular level, while effects at individual level (e.g., growth,
survival, reproduction) seem to be improbable. The sublethal effects pointed out
by short- and mid-term exposures might be also more worrisome considering that
freshwater invertebrates are exposed to NSAID concentrations for their whole
lifespan. In addition, considering the increasing production and use of NSAIDs
might lead to a notable increase in freshwater environmental levels and, consequently, to an enhancement of the hazard of these pharmaceuticals towards
non-target, freshwater invertebrates. For these reasons, further studies should be
needed to enlarge the knowledge on NSAID toxicity towards aquatic organisms,
considering long-term exposures and the use of alternative and innovative assays to
shed light on the mechanisms of action of these pharmaceuticals. Lastly, considering
that NSAIDs occur in aquatic ecosystems in complex “cocktails,” studies of toxicity
of NSAID mixture toxicity should be a priority in environmental risk assessment for
this molecules in order to explore their real ecological hazard towards aquatic
communities.
References
1. Daughton CG, Ternes TA (1999) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: agents of subtle change? Environ Health Perspect 107:907–938
2. Ellis JB (2006) Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in urban receiving waters.
Environ Pollut 144(1):184–189
3. Fent K, Weston AA, Caminada D (2006) Ecotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals. Aquat
Toxicol 76(2):122–159
4. Santos LH, Araújo AN, Fachini A, Pena A, Delerue-Matos C, Montenegro MCBSM (2010)
Ecotoxicological aspects related to the presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment.
J Hazard Mater 175(1-3):45–95
5. Boxall AB, Rudd MA, Brooks BW, Caldwell DJ, Choi K, Hickmann S, Innes E, Ostapyk K,
Staveley JP, Verslycke T, Ankley GT (2012) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the
environment: what are the big questions? Environ Health Perspect 120(9):1221–1229
6. Al Aukidy M, Verlicchi P, Voulvoulis N (2014) A framework for the assessment of the
environmental risk posed by pharmaceuticals originating from hospital effluents. Sci Total
Environ 493:54–64
158
M. Parolini