of medical prescriptions, DCF has been identified as one of the main pharmaceuticals contaminating the aquatic ecosystems. Dermal application results the main
source of DCF in water [17]; in fact, because of the relative small absorption on
skin (5–10%), the most of the pharmaceutical is released to water by washing
[18]. Moreover, as traditional WWTPs have a limited efficiency of DCF removal,
this drug was commonly detected at low μg/L range in WWTP effluents of Europe
and North and South America [19, 20]. Accordingly, DCF was commonly detected
also in surface waters, in concentrations ranging between low ng/L up to low μg/L
[10–14]. Despite these findings, the information of the environmental fate and the
adverse effects of DCF towards non-target aquatic organisms is still limited.
Ibuprofen (IBU; ((+/À)-2-(p-isobutylphenyl) propionic acid with R and S isomers) is used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, rheumatic disorders, pain, and
fever [21]. IBU represents one of the core pharmaceuticals included in the “Essential
Drug List” of the World Health Organization (WHO), and it is therefore produced in
large amounts worldwide [22]. Because of its huge over-the-counter sale, large
prescription volume, and high excretion rate (estimated as 70–80% of the ingested
therapeutic dose), IBU has been identified as one of the main pharmaceuticals in
aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, IBU has relatively high mobility into aquatic environments but a lower persistence in comparison with other pharmaceuticals
[23]. IBU has been detected in moderate concentrations (up to tens of μg/L) both
in the effluents of WWTPs and in surface waters during surveys carried out in both
Europe and North America [10, 12, 24].
Although the occurrence of low to moderate concentrations of paracetamol,
diclofenac, and ibuprofen has been demonstrated in aquatic ecosystems worldwide,
the information concerning their potential toxicity towards non-target aquatic organisms is still limited. For this reason, the aim of the present study is to review the
adverse effects induced by the exposure to paracetamol, diclofenac, and ibuprofen
towards freshwater invertebrates that was performed in order to shed light on the
potential hazard of these pharmaceutical compounds towards non-target organisms
and to lay the foundations for further ecotoxicological investigations.
2 Adverse Effects of NSAIDs of Freshwater Organisms
The studies of the adverse effects induced by the exposure to paracetamol,
diclofenac, and ibuprofen towards freshwater invertebrates have been performed
on different model species belonging to different taxa, from algae to mussels. Thus,
the effects induced to different organisms by the exposure to each single molecule
are discussed in the paragraphs below.
150
M. Parolini
source of DCF in water [17]; in fact, because of the relative small absorption on
skin (5–10%), the most of the pharmaceutical is released to water by washing
[18]. Moreover, as traditional WWTPs have a limited efficiency of DCF removal,
this drug was commonly detected at low μg/L range in WWTP effluents of Europe
and North and South America [19, 20]. Accordingly, DCF was commonly detected
also in surface waters, in concentrations ranging between low ng/L up to low μg/L
[10–14]. Despite these findings, the information of the environmental fate and the
adverse effects of DCF towards non-target aquatic organisms is still limited.
Ibuprofen (IBU; ((+/À)-2-(p-isobutylphenyl) propionic acid with R and S isomers) is used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, rheumatic disorders, pain, and
fever [21]. IBU represents one of the core pharmaceuticals included in the “Essential
Drug List” of the World Health Organization (WHO), and it is therefore produced in
large amounts worldwide [22]. Because of its huge over-the-counter sale, large
prescription volume, and high excretion rate (estimated as 70–80% of the ingested
therapeutic dose), IBU has been identified as one of the main pharmaceuticals in
aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, IBU has relatively high mobility into aquatic environments but a lower persistence in comparison with other pharmaceuticals
[23]. IBU has been detected in moderate concentrations (up to tens of μg/L) both
in the effluents of WWTPs and in surface waters during surveys carried out in both
Europe and North America [10, 12, 24].
Although the occurrence of low to moderate concentrations of paracetamol,
diclofenac, and ibuprofen has been demonstrated in aquatic ecosystems worldwide,
the information concerning their potential toxicity towards non-target aquatic organisms is still limited. For this reason, the aim of the present study is to review the
adverse effects induced by the exposure to paracetamol, diclofenac, and ibuprofen
towards freshwater invertebrates that was performed in order to shed light on the
potential hazard of these pharmaceutical compounds towards non-target organisms
and to lay the foundations for further ecotoxicological investigations.
2 Adverse Effects of NSAIDs of Freshwater Organisms
The studies of the adverse effects induced by the exposure to paracetamol,
diclofenac, and ibuprofen towards freshwater invertebrates have been performed
on different model species belonging to different taxa, from algae to mussels. Thus,
the effects induced to different organisms by the exposure to each single molecule
are discussed in the paragraphs below.
150
M. Parolini