3 The First Law: The Production of Heat and the Principle
of Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Adiabatic Work and Internal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Heat Exchange and the First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Energy Conservation in a Reversible Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5 Irreversible Universe: Heat versus Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Heat Capacity and Molar Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Joule’s Law (Joule Free Expansion): The Caloric Equation
of State for Ideal Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9 Quasi-static Heating and the Adiabatic Transformation
of a Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.1 Isochoric processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.2 Isobaric processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.3 Adiabatic Transformation of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.10 Energy Analyses of Processes in Open Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.11 The Story of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4 Carnot’s Theory of Heat, and Kelvin’s Adoption
of Which in Terms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Unidirectional Nature of Processes and the Production
of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 The Carnot Cycle and Carnot’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 The Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3.1 Carnot’s Reversible Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4 Carnot’s Function and Kelvin’s Resolution of the Conflict
Between MEH and Carnot’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5 Falling of Caloric in Reversible Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5.1 Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature
and the Ideal-Gas Thermometric Temperature . . . . . . . 74
4.5.2 Falling of Caloric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5.3 The Carnot Formula and the Kelvin Formula . . . . . . . . 79
4.5.4 Caloric or Heat: Interpreted as Both Heat Flow
and “Entropy” Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5.5 Equivalence of the Clausius Statement
and the Kelvin-Planck Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.6 Limitation in the Amount of Heat to be Converted into
Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
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of Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Adiabatic Work and Internal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3 Heat Exchange and the First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Energy Conservation in a Reversible Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5 Irreversible Universe: Heat versus Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Heat Capacity and Molar Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Joule’s Law (Joule Free Expansion): The Caloric Equation
of State for Ideal Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9 Quasi-static Heating and the Adiabatic Transformation
of a Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.1 Isochoric processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.2 Isobaric processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.9.3 Adiabatic Transformation of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.10 Energy Analyses of Processes in Open Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.11 The Story of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4 Carnot’s Theory of Heat, and Kelvin’s Adoption
of Which in Terms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 Unidirectional Nature of Processes and the Production
of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 The Carnot Cycle and Carnot’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 The Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3.1 Carnot’s Reversible Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.4 Carnot’s Function and Kelvin’s Resolution of the Conflict
Between MEH and Carnot’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.5 Falling of Caloric in Reversible Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5.1 Absolute Thermodynamic Temperature
and the Ideal-Gas Thermometric Temperature . . . . . . . 74
4.5.2 Falling of Caloric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5.3 The Carnot Formula and the Kelvin Formula . . . . . . . . 79
4.5.4 Caloric or Heat: Interpreted as Both Heat Flow
and “Entropy” Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5.5 Equivalence of the Clausius Statement
and the Kelvin-Planck Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.6 Limitation in the Amount of Heat to be Converted into
Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
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