ration of dairy cattle, and it can numerically express as a feed to milk ratio. The
AFM1 in milk is a carcinogenic metabolite of aflatoxin B1. The generation of AFM1
by the metabolites of AFB1 occurs in the liver and its secrets into milk in the
mammary gland of dairy cows (Khiniki 2006) may lead to increase in the risk of
liver cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of WHO
included AFB1 as primary and AFM1 as secondary groups of carcinogenic compounds. Heat treatments like pasteurization, boiling, and UHT treatment were not
effective in lowering the development of AFM1 (Khiniki 2006). These findings
indicated that AFM1 with altered levels could be available in dairy products made
from unclean milk. Consequently, this subject is a serious problem for the public
health for all the age groups, including infants and children who consume the milkcontaining products worldwide. For this reason, milk and dairy products have to be
evaluated uninterruptedly for AFM1 contamination at least twice a year. Beside this,
it is important to have low levels of AFM1 in the feeds of dairy animals, and in order
to achieve this purpose, feeds of dairy cows should be kept away from contamination
as much as possible (Bakirci 2001; Khiniki 2006). Due to the potent carcinogenicity
of aflatoxin, most countries regulate the presence of aflatoxin in both feed and milk.
The tolerance level for AFM1 in milk varies among countries from 0.05 μg kg
À1 in
Europe to 0.5 μg kg
À1 in the USA (Saitanu 1997; WHO 2002). In India, FSSAI has
also established a standard for aflatoxin M1 (0.5 ppb) in milk.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals enter the human and animal body mainly through inhalation and
ingestion. Heavy metals produce toxic effects by replacing essential metal ions
existing in the chelates present in the body. The intake via ingestion depends upon
food habits (Aytenfsu et al. 2016). The metals, namely, copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn),
are essential micronutrients and have a variety of biochemical functions in all living
organisms (Licata et al. 2004). While Cu and Zn are essential, they can be toxic when
taken in excess; both toxicity and necessity vary from element to element. It is well
established that lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) are toxic for human especially children
who are more sensitive to these metals than adults. Milk is the fundamental food for
infants, and the daily intake of the heavy metals Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn can be
determined by different age groups of infants through different milks and baby
foods. Heavy metals can enter to milk and dairy products and affect the health of
people who have consumed contaminate milk and dairy products. The health
implications from heavy metals lead to kidney damage, cardiovascular diseases,
and induction of hypertension, growth inhibition, and interference in hemoglobin
synthesis and irreversible changes in the brain and nerve cells, and also some of these
residues are known to be carcinogenic in nature. The pulmonary and nervous
systems and skins are the main target organs of arsenic contamination. Cadmium
is associated with kidney damage, and lead is considered to be associated with
learning deficits in children. Copper and zinc are essential micronutrients but in
higher amount may influence metallic taste to the product resulting unacceptability
98
H. V. Raghu et al.
AFM1 in milk is a carcinogenic metabolite of aflatoxin B1. The generation of AFM1
by the metabolites of AFB1 occurs in the liver and its secrets into milk in the
mammary gland of dairy cows (Khiniki 2006) may lead to increase in the risk of
liver cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of WHO
included AFB1 as primary and AFM1 as secondary groups of carcinogenic compounds. Heat treatments like pasteurization, boiling, and UHT treatment were not
effective in lowering the development of AFM1 (Khiniki 2006). These findings
indicated that AFM1 with altered levels could be available in dairy products made
from unclean milk. Consequently, this subject is a serious problem for the public
health for all the age groups, including infants and children who consume the milkcontaining products worldwide. For this reason, milk and dairy products have to be
evaluated uninterruptedly for AFM1 contamination at least twice a year. Beside this,
it is important to have low levels of AFM1 in the feeds of dairy animals, and in order
to achieve this purpose, feeds of dairy cows should be kept away from contamination
as much as possible (Bakirci 2001; Khiniki 2006). Due to the potent carcinogenicity
of aflatoxin, most countries regulate the presence of aflatoxin in both feed and milk.
The tolerance level for AFM1 in milk varies among countries from 0.05 μg kg
À1 in
Europe to 0.5 μg kg
À1 in the USA (Saitanu 1997; WHO 2002). In India, FSSAI has
also established a standard for aflatoxin M1 (0.5 ppb) in milk.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals enter the human and animal body mainly through inhalation and
ingestion. Heavy metals produce toxic effects by replacing essential metal ions
existing in the chelates present in the body. The intake via ingestion depends upon
food habits (Aytenfsu et al. 2016). The metals, namely, copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn),
are essential micronutrients and have a variety of biochemical functions in all living
organisms (Licata et al. 2004). While Cu and Zn are essential, they can be toxic when
taken in excess; both toxicity and necessity vary from element to element. It is well
established that lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) are toxic for human especially children
who are more sensitive to these metals than adults. Milk is the fundamental food for
infants, and the daily intake of the heavy metals Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn can be
determined by different age groups of infants through different milks and baby
foods. Heavy metals can enter to milk and dairy products and affect the health of
people who have consumed contaminate milk and dairy products. The health
implications from heavy metals lead to kidney damage, cardiovascular diseases,
and induction of hypertension, growth inhibition, and interference in hemoglobin
synthesis and irreversible changes in the brain and nerve cells, and also some of these
residues are known to be carcinogenic in nature. The pulmonary and nervous
systems and skins are the main target organs of arsenic contamination. Cadmium
is associated with kidney damage, and lead is considered to be associated with
learning deficits in children. Copper and zinc are essential micronutrients but in
higher amount may influence metallic taste to the product resulting unacceptability
98
H. V. Raghu et al.