2014). On the other hand, plants and agricultural products serve as a reservoir for
many microbes which are nonpathogenic to plants whereas pathogenic to animals
and humans (Schikora et al. 2012; Gu et al. 2011). Antibiotics can cause some
disruptions like aplasia of the bone marrow (e.g., chloramphenicol) (Mitchell et al.
1998) and carcinogen (e.g., oxytetracycline and furazolidone). Therefore, the use of
antibiotics in livestock sector may accelerate the development of antibiotic-resistant
microbial pathogens, leading to potentially muddling treatment for both animals and
humans diseases.
Pesticides
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture to protect the crop from insects/pests, but,
through water, forages, and the environment, they become a part of the milk causing
contamination and thus confer a health risk (Bo et al. 2011). Chlorinated pesticides,
organophosphate, carbaryl, and related compounds such as DDT, endosulfan,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins are some of the pesticides that can
enter milk and dairy products (Mukerjee 1998). On ingestion, around 20% of an
ingested chlorinated hydrocarbon is excreted in milk, adhering to milk fat and butter
(Hubbert et al. 1996). DDT is a lipophilic compound; hence it can accumulate in
fatty tissues and can transfer into milk and dairy products. Pesticides, such as
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs), can cause damage to central nervous system,
reproductive system, and endocrine system (Alvarado and Perez 1998). Universally,
all organochlorine pesticides are characterized by their high lipophilicity and long
elimination half-lives. Disruption of normal endocrine-regulated functions by these
chemicals represents an important consideration in risk assessment (Mukerjee 1998).
In view of the potential health hazards, there are around 13 pesticides which are
restricted for use in India since 1997 such as DDT, lindane, methyl parathion,
endosulfan, monocrotophos, aluminum phosphate, dieldrin, etc. Residues of such
compounds may persist in the environment and cause contamination through the
food chain (Wong and Lee 1997).
Aflatoxin M1
Aflatoxins are a group of highly toxic secondary metabolic products of molds such
as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which infect the cereals and oil
seeds, the major constituents of dairy cattle feed, during their pre- and postharvest
management. Molds occur in these agro-products, during the growth of plants,
maturity, harvesting, and processing of grains. Their presence is influenced by
various factors like temperature, relative humidity, oxygen availability, and
damaged or broken grain kernels (Lanyasunya et al. 2005). Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1)
may be found in the milk of animals that are fed with aflatoxin B1
(AFB1)-contaminated feed (Kangethe and Langa 2009). The concentration of
AFM1 in milk is entirely dependent on the presence of the precursor AFB1 in the
3 Application of Nanobiosensors for Food Safety Monitoring
97
many microbes which are nonpathogenic to plants whereas pathogenic to animals
and humans (Schikora et al. 2012; Gu et al. 2011). Antibiotics can cause some
disruptions like aplasia of the bone marrow (e.g., chloramphenicol) (Mitchell et al.
1998) and carcinogen (e.g., oxytetracycline and furazolidone). Therefore, the use of
antibiotics in livestock sector may accelerate the development of antibiotic-resistant
microbial pathogens, leading to potentially muddling treatment for both animals and
humans diseases.
Pesticides
Pesticides are widely used in agriculture to protect the crop from insects/pests, but,
through water, forages, and the environment, they become a part of the milk causing
contamination and thus confer a health risk (Bo et al. 2011). Chlorinated pesticides,
organophosphate, carbaryl, and related compounds such as DDT, endosulfan,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins are some of the pesticides that can
enter milk and dairy products (Mukerjee 1998). On ingestion, around 20% of an
ingested chlorinated hydrocarbon is excreted in milk, adhering to milk fat and butter
(Hubbert et al. 1996). DDT is a lipophilic compound; hence it can accumulate in
fatty tissues and can transfer into milk and dairy products. Pesticides, such as
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs), can cause damage to central nervous system,
reproductive system, and endocrine system (Alvarado and Perez 1998). Universally,
all organochlorine pesticides are characterized by their high lipophilicity and long
elimination half-lives. Disruption of normal endocrine-regulated functions by these
chemicals represents an important consideration in risk assessment (Mukerjee 1998).
In view of the potential health hazards, there are around 13 pesticides which are
restricted for use in India since 1997 such as DDT, lindane, methyl parathion,
endosulfan, monocrotophos, aluminum phosphate, dieldrin, etc. Residues of such
compounds may persist in the environment and cause contamination through the
food chain (Wong and Lee 1997).
Aflatoxin M1
Aflatoxins are a group of highly toxic secondary metabolic products of molds such
as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which infect the cereals and oil
seeds, the major constituents of dairy cattle feed, during their pre- and postharvest
management. Molds occur in these agro-products, during the growth of plants,
maturity, harvesting, and processing of grains. Their presence is influenced by
various factors like temperature, relative humidity, oxygen availability, and
damaged or broken grain kernels (Lanyasunya et al. 2005). Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1)
may be found in the milk of animals that are fed with aflatoxin B1
(AFB1)-contaminated feed (Kangethe and Langa 2009). The concentration of
AFM1 in milk is entirely dependent on the presence of the precursor AFB1 in the
3 Application of Nanobiosensors for Food Safety Monitoring
97