118
communication with the research-based programs of government or the international centers.
12
Farming Systems Research and Extension One response to this research/extension gap in the Global South began in the 1970s. It was called Farming Systems
Research & Extension (FSR&E). The FSR&E approach was somewhat of a re- creation
of the traditional land-grant extension model, although more attention was given to
tighter, collaborative feedbacks among researchers, extension agents, and producers. This occurred due to the recognition that expatriate personnel were typically
less familiar with the details of small-farm agricultural problems in foreign lands.
Manuals were generated summarizing FSR&E approaches (Shaner et al. 1982).
While the FSR&E perspective once supported peer-reviewed journals and annual
meetings, the general trend has been for FSR&E to evolve into other interrelated
forms of inquiry. A history is provided by David Norman.
13
The FSR&E perspective has been very interdisciplinary, as is required for real-world problem- solving.
This was groundbreaking for its time.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Perhaps the best known critiques of the
challenges associated with “top-down” diagnosis of rural problems in the Global
South were forwarded by Robert Chambers (1983). Chambers illuminated many
disconnects between the world of “development experts” and the needs of the rural
poor. He noted that the knowledge held by local communities was largely ignored
by experts, contributing to widespread failures of development projects (Fig. 7.3).
Chambers is also recognized as the author of one of the most influential synthesis
papers describing participatory rural appraisal (PRA; Chambers 1994). The PRA
process is an approach that challenges the top-down model by providing mechanisms for sharing power and experiences between experts and community members
in the co-production of new knowledge. As with FSR&E, the PRA approach was a
consolidation of diverse perspectives that responded to the “extension gap” evident
for developing nations. Procedures for PRA and related techniques are summarized
in various field manuals
14
and scholarly texts (Narayanasamy 2009).
15
A concise
review emphasizing research applications for PRA is provided by Coppock (2016).
The PRA process is generic in the sense that it can be effectively used to guide
development interventions or identify priority research questions. The main focus
12 There are exceptions to this rather bleak picture, however. There are some cases where, in the
course of annual performance reviews, government researchers may receive tangible incentives
when their research has demonstrably led to impact on communities. This can foster stronger
interactions among researchers, extension agents, and producers (D. L. Coppock, personal
observations).
13 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251791709_The_farming_systems_approach_A_
historical_perspective.
14 https://financiamentointernacional.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/manual-de-formac3a7c3a3ode-formadores-em-gestc3a3o-de-projectos.pdf.
15 PRA has also subsequently morphed into several other, but closely related, forms of communitybased analysis and intervention.
D. L. Coppock
communication with the research-based programs of government or the international centers.
12
Farming Systems Research and Extension One response to this research/extension gap in the Global South began in the 1970s. It was called Farming Systems
Research & Extension (FSR&E). The FSR&E approach was somewhat of a re- creation
of the traditional land-grant extension model, although more attention was given to
tighter, collaborative feedbacks among researchers, extension agents, and producers. This occurred due to the recognition that expatriate personnel were typically
less familiar with the details of small-farm agricultural problems in foreign lands.
Manuals were generated summarizing FSR&E approaches (Shaner et al. 1982).
While the FSR&E perspective once supported peer-reviewed journals and annual
meetings, the general trend has been for FSR&E to evolve into other interrelated
forms of inquiry. A history is provided by David Norman.
13
The FSR&E perspective has been very interdisciplinary, as is required for real-world problem- solving.
This was groundbreaking for its time.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Perhaps the best known critiques of the
challenges associated with “top-down” diagnosis of rural problems in the Global
South were forwarded by Robert Chambers (1983). Chambers illuminated many
disconnects between the world of “development experts” and the needs of the rural
poor. He noted that the knowledge held by local communities was largely ignored
by experts, contributing to widespread failures of development projects (Fig. 7.3).
Chambers is also recognized as the author of one of the most influential synthesis
papers describing participatory rural appraisal (PRA; Chambers 1994). The PRA
process is an approach that challenges the top-down model by providing mechanisms for sharing power and experiences between experts and community members
in the co-production of new knowledge. As with FSR&E, the PRA approach was a
consolidation of diverse perspectives that responded to the “extension gap” evident
for developing nations. Procedures for PRA and related techniques are summarized
in various field manuals
14
and scholarly texts (Narayanasamy 2009).
15
A concise
review emphasizing research applications for PRA is provided by Coppock (2016).
The PRA process is generic in the sense that it can be effectively used to guide
development interventions or identify priority research questions. The main focus
12 There are exceptions to this rather bleak picture, however. There are some cases where, in the
course of annual performance reviews, government researchers may receive tangible incentives
when their research has demonstrably led to impact on communities. This can foster stronger
interactions among researchers, extension agents, and producers (D. L. Coppock, personal
observations).
13 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251791709_The_farming_systems_approach_A_
historical_perspective.
14 https://financiamentointernacional.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/manual-de-formac3a7c3a3ode-formadores-em-gestc3a3o-de-projectos.pdf.
15 PRA has also subsequently morphed into several other, but closely related, forms of communitybased analysis and intervention.
D. L. Coppock