growing economy and urbanization, China’s NO x emissions have increased by a
factor of three during the last two decades (Zhang et al. 2007; Kurokawa et al. 2013).
This rapid increase in emissions has caused serious environmental problems, particularly poor air quality.
Ammonia (NH 3 ) is an important reactive nitrogen (N) compound and has wide
impacts on both atmospheric chemistry and ecosystems. As an alkaline gas in the
atmosphere, it can readily neutralize both sulfuric and nitric acids to form ammonium bisulfate or sulfate and ammonium nitrate, which are the major constituents of
secondary inorganic aerosols (Behera and Sharma 2012). Kirkby et al. (2011) found
that atmospheric NH 3 could substantially accelerate the nucleation of new sulfuric
acid particles, thereby contributing to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei.
The total mass of secondary ammonium salts accounts for 25–60% of PM 2.5
(particulate matter with diameter less than or equal to 2.5 μm) (He et al. 2001;
Fang et al. 2009; Ianniello et al. 2011), causing air pollution and also having a
significant effect on radiative forcing (Charlson et al. 1992; Martin et al. 2004). In
addition, the deposition of NH 3 to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can directly or
indirectly cause severe environmental issues, such as soil acidification, eutrophication of water bodies, and even a decrease in biological diversity (Matson et al. 2002;
Pearson and Stewart 1993; Liu et al. 2011). Livestock waste and synthetic fertilizer
represent the most important sources of NH 3 emissions, jointly accounting for more
than 57% of global emissions and more than 80% of total emissions in Asia
(Bouwman et al. 1997; Streets et al. 2003). China has contributed around 20% of
global NH 3 emissions since the 1990s (Hoesly et al. 2018). The rapid economic
development and rise in living standards over the last 30 years have resulted in a
sharp increase in grain output and meat production and, consequently, increased
synthetic fertilizer use and prosperity of the livestock industry (Zhang et al. 2011,
Zhang et al. 2012b; Zhou et al. 2007). Synthetic fertilizer production has increased
threefold during the past three decades, from 10 million tons in 1980 to 43 million
tons in 2012 (Zhang et al. 2012b). The flourishing livestock industry has produced
large volumes of manure and urine that releases gaseous NH 3 through N hydrolysis
and volatilization. As a result, a marked increase in NH 3 emissions from livestock
waste and synthetic fertilizer is estimated from 1980 to the present (Kang et al.
2016).
Within the last two decades, tremendous efforts have been made to develop
reliable emission inventories in China for SO 2 , NO x , and NH 3 , and significant
improvements have been made. Early emission inventories over China were
conducted mainly using “bottom-up” methodologies, which employ activity rates
and emission factors (EFs); the values of these parameters were drawn from those
determined for Western countries, due to the lack of local data (Kato and Akimoto
1992; Streets et al. 2003; Ohara et al. 2007). To support the INTEX-B (Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment-Phase B) mission, Zhang et al. (2009) used
an improved, detailed technology-based approach to estimate emissions in China.
Using a consistent inventory framework, Ohara et al. (2007) developed the first
emission inventory covering China (the Regional Emission inventory in Asia,
REAS) that includes both the historical period and projections; this inventory was
updated to REAS v2 by Kurokawa et al. (2013). By assembling the up-to-date
2 Anthropogenic Emissions of SO 2 , NO x , and NH 3 in China
15
factor of three during the last two decades (Zhang et al. 2007; Kurokawa et al. 2013).
This rapid increase in emissions has caused serious environmental problems, particularly poor air quality.
Ammonia (NH 3 ) is an important reactive nitrogen (N) compound and has wide
impacts on both atmospheric chemistry and ecosystems. As an alkaline gas in the
atmosphere, it can readily neutralize both sulfuric and nitric acids to form ammonium bisulfate or sulfate and ammonium nitrate, which are the major constituents of
secondary inorganic aerosols (Behera and Sharma 2012). Kirkby et al. (2011) found
that atmospheric NH 3 could substantially accelerate the nucleation of new sulfuric
acid particles, thereby contributing to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei.
The total mass of secondary ammonium salts accounts for 25–60% of PM 2.5
(particulate matter with diameter less than or equal to 2.5 μm) (He et al. 2001;
Fang et al. 2009; Ianniello et al. 2011), causing air pollution and also having a
significant effect on radiative forcing (Charlson et al. 1992; Martin et al. 2004). In
addition, the deposition of NH 3 to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can directly or
indirectly cause severe environmental issues, such as soil acidification, eutrophication of water bodies, and even a decrease in biological diversity (Matson et al. 2002;
Pearson and Stewart 1993; Liu et al. 2011). Livestock waste and synthetic fertilizer
represent the most important sources of NH 3 emissions, jointly accounting for more
than 57% of global emissions and more than 80% of total emissions in Asia
(Bouwman et al. 1997; Streets et al. 2003). China has contributed around 20% of
global NH 3 emissions since the 1990s (Hoesly et al. 2018). The rapid economic
development and rise in living standards over the last 30 years have resulted in a
sharp increase in grain output and meat production and, consequently, increased
synthetic fertilizer use and prosperity of the livestock industry (Zhang et al. 2011,
Zhang et al. 2012b; Zhou et al. 2007). Synthetic fertilizer production has increased
threefold during the past three decades, from 10 million tons in 1980 to 43 million
tons in 2012 (Zhang et al. 2012b). The flourishing livestock industry has produced
large volumes of manure and urine that releases gaseous NH 3 through N hydrolysis
and volatilization. As a result, a marked increase in NH 3 emissions from livestock
waste and synthetic fertilizer is estimated from 1980 to the present (Kang et al.
2016).
Within the last two decades, tremendous efforts have been made to develop
reliable emission inventories in China for SO 2 , NO x , and NH 3 , and significant
improvements have been made. Early emission inventories over China were
conducted mainly using “bottom-up” methodologies, which employ activity rates
and emission factors (EFs); the values of these parameters were drawn from those
determined for Western countries, due to the lack of local data (Kato and Akimoto
1992; Streets et al. 2003; Ohara et al. 2007). To support the INTEX-B (Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment-Phase B) mission, Zhang et al. (2009) used
an improved, detailed technology-based approach to estimate emissions in China.
Using a consistent inventory framework, Ohara et al. (2007) developed the first
emission inventory covering China (the Regional Emission inventory in Asia,
REAS) that includes both the historical period and projections; this inventory was
updated to REAS v2 by Kurokawa et al. (2013). By assembling the up-to-date
2 Anthropogenic Emissions of SO 2 , NO x , and NH 3 in China
15