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manure and is important for cultural and social uses such as dowry and rituals. In
addition, it is a moving bank, default insurance for diversifying risk and source of
income and draught power. However, livestock is both a culprit and contributor of
greenhouse gas emissions, global warming, and subsequently climate change
(Gerber et al. 2013; Thornton et al. 2011). It is estimated that livestock contributes
about 18% of global anthropogenic greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions, including
methane from animals (25%), carbon dioxide from land use and its changes (32%),
and nitrous oxide from manure and slurry (31%) (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Gerber
et al. (2013) reported that livestock contributes about 7.1 Gt CO 2 -eq per annum,
representing 14.5% of human-induced GHG emissions, a majority of which is contributed by beef and cattle milk production.
Livestock is also a victim of climate change-related effects in many ways. Due to
their poor resource base and the wider pervasive poverty that characterize the context in which they are embedded, the poor are particularly vulnerable to many climate change-induced disasters such as prolonged droughts and floods. It is therefore
imperative that resilient interventions be put in place to mitigate any related negative consequences that may arise with respect to smallholder agriculture including
livestock. Negative effects of climate change include but not limited to the following:
Loss of animals and infrastructure While drought and dry spells are more common than floods, recent evidence shows that floods can be equally as devastating.
For example, the Malawi Post-floods assessment report (Government of Malawi
2015) showed that an estimated 195,032 livestock were either reported as lost or
damaged, with the total economic losses estimated at MK5849 million (~US$12.3
million). Increases in incidences of livestock parasites and diseases were also
reported, resulting in further losses.
Loss of feed resource base Negative effects of climate change on livestock include
variability in availability, quality, distribution, composition, and cost of fodder or
herbage and concentrates. Floods and droughts reduce access to feed and fresh
water, in addition to negatively affecting quantity and quality of feed. Floods sweep
away trees and shrubs and grass (pasture), which can sometimes be covered in mud,
making the fodder unavailable to animals. The situation is aggravated during
droughts and continued dry spells, where all the pasture and shrubs are easily
destroyed by uncontrolled bushfires. Shortages of feed force animals to walk long
distances in search of food and water as most water points completely dry up.
Unfortunately, the movement of animals in search of water and food further aggravates the conditions of the animals, as it depletes the already low energy body
reserves. Degradation of pastures in periods of drought may lead to complete loss of
productive pasture species and desperate consumption of toxic plants by animals
and indirectly leads to soil degradation. Due to lack of access to fresh water and
feed, animals easily succumb to disease (eating contaminated soil, toxic plants,
drinking dirty water, operating in muddy environments), leading to poor body condition scores which negatively affect productivity through reduced growth and
reproduction.
Knowledge Gaps and Research Priorities
manure and is important for cultural and social uses such as dowry and rituals. In
addition, it is a moving bank, default insurance for diversifying risk and source of
income and draught power. However, livestock is both a culprit and contributor of
greenhouse gas emissions, global warming, and subsequently climate change
(Gerber et al. 2013; Thornton et al. 2011). It is estimated that livestock contributes
about 18% of global anthropogenic greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions, including
methane from animals (25%), carbon dioxide from land use and its changes (32%),
and nitrous oxide from manure and slurry (31%) (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Gerber
et al. (2013) reported that livestock contributes about 7.1 Gt CO 2 -eq per annum,
representing 14.5% of human-induced GHG emissions, a majority of which is contributed by beef and cattle milk production.
Livestock is also a victim of climate change-related effects in many ways. Due to
their poor resource base and the wider pervasive poverty that characterize the context in which they are embedded, the poor are particularly vulnerable to many climate change-induced disasters such as prolonged droughts and floods. It is therefore
imperative that resilient interventions be put in place to mitigate any related negative consequences that may arise with respect to smallholder agriculture including
livestock. Negative effects of climate change include but not limited to the following:
Loss of animals and infrastructure While drought and dry spells are more common than floods, recent evidence shows that floods can be equally as devastating.
For example, the Malawi Post-floods assessment report (Government of Malawi
2015) showed that an estimated 195,032 livestock were either reported as lost or
damaged, with the total economic losses estimated at MK5849 million (~US$12.3
million). Increases in incidences of livestock parasites and diseases were also
reported, resulting in further losses.
Loss of feed resource base Negative effects of climate change on livestock include
variability in availability, quality, distribution, composition, and cost of fodder or
herbage and concentrates. Floods and droughts reduce access to feed and fresh
water, in addition to negatively affecting quantity and quality of feed. Floods sweep
away trees and shrubs and grass (pasture), which can sometimes be covered in mud,
making the fodder unavailable to animals. The situation is aggravated during
droughts and continued dry spells, where all the pasture and shrubs are easily
destroyed by uncontrolled bushfires. Shortages of feed force animals to walk long
distances in search of food and water as most water points completely dry up.
Unfortunately, the movement of animals in search of water and food further aggravates the conditions of the animals, as it depletes the already low energy body
reserves. Degradation of pastures in periods of drought may lead to complete loss of
productive pasture species and desperate consumption of toxic plants by animals
and indirectly leads to soil degradation. Due to lack of access to fresh water and
feed, animals easily succumb to disease (eating contaminated soil, toxic plants,
drinking dirty water, operating in muddy environments), leading to poor body condition scores which negatively affect productivity through reduced growth and
reproduction.
Knowledge Gaps and Research Priorities