20 Carotenoids in Aviculture
531
The carotenoid concentration in the tissues of newly hatched moorhens was
comparable with those in chickens hatched from the eggs produced by hens fed on a
maize-based diet (Surai and Sparks 2001). In general, the data indicate that carotenoid
concentration in the liver and peripheral tissues of the newly hatched wild birds were
comparable with those in chickens obtained from carotenoid-enriched eggs.
Increased lutein concentration in egg yolk was found to have positive effect on
offspring survival in the great tit (Marri and Richner 2014). Furthermore, a direct
positive relationship between enhanced maternal investment of carotenoids and the
ability to cope with a specific and costly parasite in young birds was shown (Ewen
et al. 2009). In fact, maternal effects mediated by carotenoids may be an important
factor in development and phenotypic plasticity in traits associated with nestling
fitness, such as immune response and ability to metabolise and use antioxidants,
and ultimately participate in the evolution of phenotypic traits (Biard et al. 2007).
Carotenoid availability was suggested to modulate the trade-off between reproduction and resistance to oxidative stress in zebra finches (Bertrand et al. 2006). Indeed,
maternally derived carotenoids affected offspring survival, sex ratio and sexual attractiveness in a colourful songbird (McGraw et al. 2005). In the blue tit, nestlings from
eggs laid by carotenoid-supplemented females were characterised by longer tarsi,
had faster development of the immune system and grew brighter yellow feathers
than nestlings from control females (Biard et al. 2005). Carotenoid availability has
also been demonstrated to limit egg-laying capacity in gulls (Blount 2004; Blount
et al. 2004). In fact, maternal yolk carotenoids can have a major effect in promoting
a fundamental component of immunity that predicts offspring survival and suggests
that adaptive early maternal effects can be mediated by transmission of antioxidants
to egg (Saino et al. 2003). In red-legged partridges, plasma carotenoids at the end of
laying period were strongly correlated with the number of eggs laid (Bortolotti et al.
2003). Maternal carotenoid status affected the incorporation of dietary carotenoids
into immune tissues of growing chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) (Koutsos et al.
2003). In a supplemental feeding study of lesser black-backed gulls, Larus fuscus,
carotenoid-supplemented females were found to have increased integument pigmentation, elevated plasma concentrations of carotenoids and enhanced antioxidant
activity (Blount et al. 2002). It was suggested that maternal investment in yolk
carotenoids promotes the evolution of carotenoid-based ornaments and proven that
maternal effects mediated by yolk carotenoids play an important role in the evolution of carotenoid-based signals as a response to sexual selection, likely based on
organisational effects of carotenoids during embryo development (Biard et al. 2009).
Across avian species, there were positive relationships between embryonic growth
rate and total yolk levels of carotenoids or vitamin E. Moreover, the eggs of the faster
developing species have been shown to have higher carotenoids and vitamin E status
(Deeming and Pike 2013). There are two main strategies for carotenoid investment
in wild birds. It seems likely that females invest carotenoids into the egg to provide
maximum antioxidant defences at hatching time. At the same time male birds often
invest carotenoids into plumage. In fact, it was shown that carotenoid-dependent
bright colouration of plumage in males in various avian species in wild is indicative
of their health, in particular effective immunity (Blount et al. 2003).
531
The carotenoid concentration in the tissues of newly hatched moorhens was
comparable with those in chickens hatched from the eggs produced by hens fed on a
maize-based diet (Surai and Sparks 2001). In general, the data indicate that carotenoid
concentration in the liver and peripheral tissues of the newly hatched wild birds were
comparable with those in chickens obtained from carotenoid-enriched eggs.
Increased lutein concentration in egg yolk was found to have positive effect on
offspring survival in the great tit (Marri and Richner 2014). Furthermore, a direct
positive relationship between enhanced maternal investment of carotenoids and the
ability to cope with a specific and costly parasite in young birds was shown (Ewen
et al. 2009). In fact, maternal effects mediated by carotenoids may be an important
factor in development and phenotypic plasticity in traits associated with nestling
fitness, such as immune response and ability to metabolise and use antioxidants,
and ultimately participate in the evolution of phenotypic traits (Biard et al. 2007).
Carotenoid availability was suggested to modulate the trade-off between reproduction and resistance to oxidative stress in zebra finches (Bertrand et al. 2006). Indeed,
maternally derived carotenoids affected offspring survival, sex ratio and sexual attractiveness in a colourful songbird (McGraw et al. 2005). In the blue tit, nestlings from
eggs laid by carotenoid-supplemented females were characterised by longer tarsi,
had faster development of the immune system and grew brighter yellow feathers
than nestlings from control females (Biard et al. 2005). Carotenoid availability has
also been demonstrated to limit egg-laying capacity in gulls (Blount 2004; Blount
et al. 2004). In fact, maternal yolk carotenoids can have a major effect in promoting
a fundamental component of immunity that predicts offspring survival and suggests
that adaptive early maternal effects can be mediated by transmission of antioxidants
to egg (Saino et al. 2003). In red-legged partridges, plasma carotenoids at the end of
laying period were strongly correlated with the number of eggs laid (Bortolotti et al.
2003). Maternal carotenoid status affected the incorporation of dietary carotenoids
into immune tissues of growing chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) (Koutsos et al.
2003). In a supplemental feeding study of lesser black-backed gulls, Larus fuscus,
carotenoid-supplemented females were found to have increased integument pigmentation, elevated plasma concentrations of carotenoids and enhanced antioxidant
activity (Blount et al. 2002). It was suggested that maternal investment in yolk
carotenoids promotes the evolution of carotenoid-based ornaments and proven that
maternal effects mediated by yolk carotenoids play an important role in the evolution of carotenoid-based signals as a response to sexual selection, likely based on
organisational effects of carotenoids during embryo development (Biard et al. 2009).
Across avian species, there were positive relationships between embryonic growth
rate and total yolk levels of carotenoids or vitamin E. Moreover, the eggs of the faster
developing species have been shown to have higher carotenoids and vitamin E status
(Deeming and Pike 2013). There are two main strategies for carotenoid investment
in wild birds. It seems likely that females invest carotenoids into the egg to provide
maximum antioxidant defences at hatching time. At the same time male birds often
invest carotenoids into plumage. In fact, it was shown that carotenoid-dependent
bright colouration of plumage in males in various avian species in wild is indicative
of their health, in particular effective immunity (Blount et al. 2003).