18 Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Applications of Carotenoids
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18.1.3 Astaxanthin
A xanthophyll, astaxanthin, is principally responsible for the dark-red color and is
present in various marine animals such as salmon, trout, red seabream, and microorganisms such as Haematococcus pluvialis and Paracoccus carotinifaciens (Ambati
et al. 2014). It has a structure composed of 2-β ionone rings and a conjugated polyene
chain at the center, with hydroxyl and keto moieties on each ionone ring. Astaxanthin has 13 conjugated double bonds in the molecule, and thus the carotenoid shows
very high antioxidant activity (Di Mascio et al. 1989; Ouchi et al. 2010). As with
other carotenoids, ample studies indicated that astaxanthin would reduce risk of
certain cancers, e.g., lung cancer and colon cancer (Kowshik et al. 2014; Palozza
et al. 2009). Several researches have indicated that astaxanthin exerts anti-apoptosis,
anti-proliferative, and anti-invasion influences via different molecules and pathways:
nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT-3), and peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor gamma (PPARγ) (Zhang and Wang 2015). Astaxanthin is closely involved
in eye health. Astaxanthin is capable of passing the blood-brain barrier and will
deposit in the retina of mammals (Dhankha et al. 2012). Several studies indicated
that the daily astaxanthin intake could improve eye fatigue such as against visual
display terminal workers, and it might increase retinal capillary blood flow in eye
(Kidd 2011; Nagaki et al. 2005, 2006). In addition, several studies reported that
dietary astaxanthin can accumulate in animal brain and indicated that the carotenoid
may be useful as a preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer type dementia
(Che et al. 2018; Manabe et al. 2018; Rahman et al. 2019). For example, Rahman
et al. (2019) investigated the role of astaxanthin on hippocampal insulin resistance
in rat model of Alzheimer’s disease, and revealed that astaxanthin showed neuroprotective and anti-amyloidogenic effects in neurohistology. Moreover, ample studies
indicated that astaxanthin would have a skin protecting function. Namely, astaxanthin can prevent skin thickening and reduce collagen reduction against UV-induced
skin damage, and topical administration of astaxanthin liposomes containing cationic
lipid inhibited melanin production in skin exposed to UV (Ambati et al. 2014; Hama
et al. 2012; Yamashita 2013).
18.1.4 Lutein and Zeaxanthin
Lutein and zeaxanthin are xanthophylls, which are principally responsible for yelloworange color found in vegetables such as artichoke and corn as well as in egg yolk
(Perry et al. 2009). Both carotenoids have high singlet oxygen quenching activitiy
(Di Mascio et al. 1989) and dietary lutein and zeaxanthin would have a potential
role in the prevention and treatment of several cancers such as colorectal cancer and
lung cancer (Gallicchio et al. 2008; Männistö et al. 2006). Lutein and zeaxanthin are
concentrated in the primate retina, where they form the macular pigment, and thus
453
18.1.3 Astaxanthin
A xanthophyll, astaxanthin, is principally responsible for the dark-red color and is
present in various marine animals such as salmon, trout, red seabream, and microorganisms such as Haematococcus pluvialis and Paracoccus carotinifaciens (Ambati
et al. 2014). It has a structure composed of 2-β ionone rings and a conjugated polyene
chain at the center, with hydroxyl and keto moieties on each ionone ring. Astaxanthin has 13 conjugated double bonds in the molecule, and thus the carotenoid shows
very high antioxidant activity (Di Mascio et al. 1989; Ouchi et al. 2010). As with
other carotenoids, ample studies indicated that astaxanthin would reduce risk of
certain cancers, e.g., lung cancer and colon cancer (Kowshik et al. 2014; Palozza
et al. 2009). Several researches have indicated that astaxanthin exerts anti-apoptosis,
anti-proliferative, and anti-invasion influences via different molecules and pathways:
nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT-3), and peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor gamma (PPARγ) (Zhang and Wang 2015). Astaxanthin is closely involved
in eye health. Astaxanthin is capable of passing the blood-brain barrier and will
deposit in the retina of mammals (Dhankha et al. 2012). Several studies indicated
that the daily astaxanthin intake could improve eye fatigue such as against visual
display terminal workers, and it might increase retinal capillary blood flow in eye
(Kidd 2011; Nagaki et al. 2005, 2006). In addition, several studies reported that
dietary astaxanthin can accumulate in animal brain and indicated that the carotenoid
may be useful as a preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer type dementia
(Che et al. 2018; Manabe et al. 2018; Rahman et al. 2019). For example, Rahman
et al. (2019) investigated the role of astaxanthin on hippocampal insulin resistance
in rat model of Alzheimer’s disease, and revealed that astaxanthin showed neuroprotective and anti-amyloidogenic effects in neurohistology. Moreover, ample studies
indicated that astaxanthin would have a skin protecting function. Namely, astaxanthin can prevent skin thickening and reduce collagen reduction against UV-induced
skin damage, and topical administration of astaxanthin liposomes containing cationic
lipid inhibited melanin production in skin exposed to UV (Ambati et al. 2014; Hama
et al. 2012; Yamashita 2013).
18.1.4 Lutein and Zeaxanthin
Lutein and zeaxanthin are xanthophylls, which are principally responsible for yelloworange color found in vegetables such as artichoke and corn as well as in egg yolk
(Perry et al. 2009). Both carotenoids have high singlet oxygen quenching activitiy
(Di Mascio et al. 1989) and dietary lutein and zeaxanthin would have a potential
role in the prevention and treatment of several cancers such as colorectal cancer and
lung cancer (Gallicchio et al. 2008; Männistö et al. 2006). Lutein and zeaxanthin are
concentrated in the primate retina, where they form the macular pigment, and thus