384
M. C. Deprá et al.
0.0000040 kg CFC-11 eq, respectively. The photochemical creation potential or
SMOG is often used in conjunction with compounds of ozone depletion potential
(ODP) as a measure of how environmentally detrimental it can be. SMOG represents
the potential of a substance to contribute to photochemical ozone creation. Thus, for
the production of β-carotene and astaxanthin by microalgae-based processes, the
mean values were 19.16 and 62.77 kg NMVOC eq respectively. On the other hand,
the synthetic production of β-carotene presented 15.47 kg NMVOC eq , while for
astaxanthin the values were in the order of 13.03 kg NMVOC eq . The results of ODP
and SMOG are related to the input of fossil energy resources for the operation of the
processing plant of synthetic and microalgae-based pigments.
Ecotoxicity freshwater is estimates of toxic effects on the ecological system caused
by natural or synthetic pollutants. In this case, for the production of β-carotene and
astaxanthin by microalgae, the values were in order to 6,006.36 and 19,784.28 CTUe,
respectively. In comparison, synthetic β-carotene presented mean values of 112.07
CTUe and synthetic astaxanthin of 94.41CTUe. In both scenarios, the input of fossil
energy resources was a determining factor for the high values found. However, for the
scenarios of obtaining natural pigments from microalgae, the uses of sodium bicarbonate and nitrates were main factors that caused higher ecotoxicity. Furthermore,
it should be considered that the effects on the ecosystems are related to the densities, concentrations, exposure, background/local conditions, and thresholds, and it is
difficult to assess if CTU could cause significant environmental impacts.
Finally, in brief, the categories of ozone depletion, photochemical creation
(SMOG), and ecotoxicity freshwater potential were dominated by electricity in all
cases. These impacts can be reduced by using sustainable engineering and design
practices by optimizing process platform construction for the intended purpose as
well as sustainable energy systems (Harris et al. 2019).
The normalised results indicate that the highest pollutants emissions are related to
categories of the photochemical ozone creation, ecotoxicity freshwater, and energy
resource potentials for all scenarios (Fig. 15.10). These emissions are related to the
indirect effects of fossil energy consumption. According to Gao et al. (2019), the
total of pollutants emitted per unit of energy produced by fossil fuels is typically two
orders of magnitude bigger than those emitted by non-fossil energy.
Therefore, the transition from fossil energy matrix to non-fossil energy (including
nuclear and renewable energy) has become an urgent issue for all countries; once
that these energies can supply two-thirds of the total global energy demand, and
contribute to the bulk of the greenhouse gas emissions reduction (Gielen et al. 2019).
Policies and incentives of governments improve the prospects for clean energy. Total
generation from renewable resources increases by 2.8% annually, and the renewable
share of world electricity generation increases from 21% in 2010 to 25% in 2040
(IEA 2013). Although it is reasonable to expect that renewables will come to provide
a growing share of the global energy supply, it should be noted that the replacing
fossil energy with non-fossil fuels remains challenging, especially for future global
policy (Cheng et al. 2019).
M. C. Deprá et al.
0.0000040 kg CFC-11 eq, respectively. The photochemical creation potential or
SMOG is often used in conjunction with compounds of ozone depletion potential
(ODP) as a measure of how environmentally detrimental it can be. SMOG represents
the potential of a substance to contribute to photochemical ozone creation. Thus, for
the production of β-carotene and astaxanthin by microalgae-based processes, the
mean values were 19.16 and 62.77 kg NMVOC eq respectively. On the other hand,
the synthetic production of β-carotene presented 15.47 kg NMVOC eq , while for
astaxanthin the values were in the order of 13.03 kg NMVOC eq . The results of ODP
and SMOG are related to the input of fossil energy resources for the operation of the
processing plant of synthetic and microalgae-based pigments.
Ecotoxicity freshwater is estimates of toxic effects on the ecological system caused
by natural or synthetic pollutants. In this case, for the production of β-carotene and
astaxanthin by microalgae, the values were in order to 6,006.36 and 19,784.28 CTUe,
respectively. In comparison, synthetic β-carotene presented mean values of 112.07
CTUe and synthetic astaxanthin of 94.41CTUe. In both scenarios, the input of fossil
energy resources was a determining factor for the high values found. However, for the
scenarios of obtaining natural pigments from microalgae, the uses of sodium bicarbonate and nitrates were main factors that caused higher ecotoxicity. Furthermore,
it should be considered that the effects on the ecosystems are related to the densities, concentrations, exposure, background/local conditions, and thresholds, and it is
difficult to assess if CTU could cause significant environmental impacts.
Finally, in brief, the categories of ozone depletion, photochemical creation
(SMOG), and ecotoxicity freshwater potential were dominated by electricity in all
cases. These impacts can be reduced by using sustainable engineering and design
practices by optimizing process platform construction for the intended purpose as
well as sustainable energy systems (Harris et al. 2019).
The normalised results indicate that the highest pollutants emissions are related to
categories of the photochemical ozone creation, ecotoxicity freshwater, and energy
resource potentials for all scenarios (Fig. 15.10). These emissions are related to the
indirect effects of fossil energy consumption. According to Gao et al. (2019), the
total of pollutants emitted per unit of energy produced by fossil fuels is typically two
orders of magnitude bigger than those emitted by non-fossil energy.
Therefore, the transition from fossil energy matrix to non-fossil energy (including
nuclear and renewable energy) has become an urgent issue for all countries; once
that these energies can supply two-thirds of the total global energy demand, and
contribute to the bulk of the greenhouse gas emissions reduction (Gielen et al. 2019).
Policies and incentives of governments improve the prospects for clean energy. Total
generation from renewable resources increases by 2.8% annually, and the renewable
share of world electricity generation increases from 21% in 2010 to 25% in 2040
(IEA 2013). Although it is reasonable to expect that renewables will come to provide
a growing share of the global energy supply, it should be noted that the replacing
fossil energy with non-fossil fuels remains challenging, especially for future global
policy (Cheng et al. 2019).