242
M. M. Maroneze et al.
However, the high costs of producing microalgal biomass limit the commercialization of bioproducts to some niche markets. The most successful microalgae-based
products available commercially belong to the two classes of pigments; carotenoids
and phycobiliproteins, especially β-carotene, astaxanthin, and phycocyanin, from
Dunaliella salina, Haematococcus pluvialis, and Arthrospira platensis, respectively
(Holdmann et al. 2019; Jacob-Lopes et al. 2019).
The demand for natural pigments is growing, as consumers and regulatory agencies increasingly question the use of artificial colorants, which have been linked to
health problems. Pigment production using microalgae offers advantages over its
production from traditional sources like fruits and vegetables, as these microorganisms have faster growth rates and high photosynthesis efficiencies and also does not
require arable land (García-López et al. 2020; Maroneze et al. 2019). Additionally,
pigments produced from microalgae have been approved by several food administrations, as Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA) and have been recommended to replace synthetic colorants in food, cosmetic,
and nutritional markets (Rahman et al. 2016).
One of the main pillars needed to support the development of the microalgae
industry is the efficient cultivation of microalgae on a large scale in an economical manner. The microalgae cultivation technology is related both to the design of
the type and configuration of open or closed cultivation systems, and the operating
conditions leading to the trade-off between optimal growth of the microalgae and
the productivity of the target bioproduct (Yen et al. 2019).
This chapter discusses the chemistry, biochemistry, and synthesis of β-carotene,
astaxanthin, and phycocyanin. The production processes of these pigments are
presented, with emphasis on significant factors that influence their productivities.
Moreover, the microalgae cultivation systems used to produce pigments on a commercial scale (raceway ponds, extensive unmixed ponds, and tubular photobioreactors)
are presented and discussed.
11.2 Astaxanthin, β-Carotene, and Phycocyanin: Basic
Aspects
Carotenoids and phycobiliproteins are accessory pigments that aid in photosynthesis
and protect the photosynthetic apparatus against high radiation. The commercially
consolidated microalgae-based pigment structures are shown in Fig. 11.1. As for
functionality, both biocompounds present biological properties like antioxidants and
anti-inflammatory (Siqueira et al. 2018).
Carotenoids are lipophilic substances composed mostly of forty carbon atoms,
formed by eight isoprene units. The molecules are linear and symmetrical, and their
basic structure can be chemically altered by reactions such as isomerization, cyclization, hydrogenation, rearrangement, and oxidation. These pigments are divided into
M. M. Maroneze et al.
However, the high costs of producing microalgal biomass limit the commercialization of bioproducts to some niche markets. The most successful microalgae-based
products available commercially belong to the two classes of pigments; carotenoids
and phycobiliproteins, especially β-carotene, astaxanthin, and phycocyanin, from
Dunaliella salina, Haematococcus pluvialis, and Arthrospira platensis, respectively
(Holdmann et al. 2019; Jacob-Lopes et al. 2019).
The demand for natural pigments is growing, as consumers and regulatory agencies increasingly question the use of artificial colorants, which have been linked to
health problems. Pigment production using microalgae offers advantages over its
production from traditional sources like fruits and vegetables, as these microorganisms have faster growth rates and high photosynthesis efficiencies and also does not
require arable land (García-López et al. 2020; Maroneze et al. 2019). Additionally,
pigments produced from microalgae have been approved by several food administrations, as Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA) and have been recommended to replace synthetic colorants in food, cosmetic,
and nutritional markets (Rahman et al. 2016).
One of the main pillars needed to support the development of the microalgae
industry is the efficient cultivation of microalgae on a large scale in an economical manner. The microalgae cultivation technology is related both to the design of
the type and configuration of open or closed cultivation systems, and the operating
conditions leading to the trade-off between optimal growth of the microalgae and
the productivity of the target bioproduct (Yen et al. 2019).
This chapter discusses the chemistry, biochemistry, and synthesis of β-carotene,
astaxanthin, and phycocyanin. The production processes of these pigments are
presented, with emphasis on significant factors that influence their productivities.
Moreover, the microalgae cultivation systems used to produce pigments on a commercial scale (raceway ponds, extensive unmixed ponds, and tubular photobioreactors)
are presented and discussed.
11.2 Astaxanthin, β-Carotene, and Phycocyanin: Basic
Aspects
Carotenoids and phycobiliproteins are accessory pigments that aid in photosynthesis
and protect the photosynthetic apparatus against high radiation. The commercially
consolidated microalgae-based pigment structures are shown in Fig. 11.1. As for
functionality, both biocompounds present biological properties like antioxidants and
anti-inflammatory (Siqueira et al. 2018).
Carotenoids are lipophilic substances composed mostly of forty carbon atoms,
formed by eight isoprene units. The molecules are linear and symmetrical, and their
basic structure can be chemically altered by reactions such as isomerization, cyclization, hydrogenation, rearrangement, and oxidation. These pigments are divided into