24.2.1 Proposition 1a: Intentional Introductions Were
and Continue to Reflect the Social Ethos of the Time
A vast number of alien species have been and continue to be purposefully or
accidentally introduced into South Africa by people for various reasons (Richardson
et al. 2003). Van Sittert (2002) argues that “biological invasions are thus intrinsically historical processes primarily shaped not by the biology of the invader, but by
the shifting cultural values of the invaded society”. We suggest that most motivations for introductions are driven by an ethos that evolves over time and relates
closely to social fashions, political-economic circumstances and scientific paradigms
(Carruthers et al. 2011). To discuss this, we highlight differences in motivations for
introducing alien species during three broad time periods—but we acknowledge
there are subtler trends within the broad timelines we outline.
A substantial number of alien species were introduced and established during the
colonial period (Bennett and van Sittert 2019)—often with the ethos of making
“improvements” to colony landscapes and economies and for botanical interest
(Carruthers et al. 2011). Such introductions were strongly influenced by the broad
landscape context of South Africa. For example, many tree species were introduced
for forestry, linked to economic development, as the country is poorly endowed with
natural forests for timber (Bennett and Kruger 2015). Yet other introductions during
this period were driven by emotionally related values—in the then Cape Colony
Pinus species (Pines) were planted by settlers in the 1700s, partly to create a sense of
place and familiarity within the treeless landscapes. Similarly, Oncorhynchus mykiss
(Rainbow Trout) was introduced to improve sense of place and counteract nostalgia
for fly fishing by local settler elites from Europe (Alletson 1997; Brown 2013). This
phenomenon is emphasised by Thompson (1913) “The Colonialist, especially of
British blood, seemed unable to finally settle down in a new land until many of the
animals and plants that minister his pleasure or profit in the homeland had followed
him...”. Canavan et al. (2018) showed that even slaves transported to South Africa
during the colonisation by the Dutch East India Company (1652–1795) brought
useful species, like bamboos, from their native lands with them. During the colonial
period, many aesthetically pleasing species were also transferred between colonies,
such as Lantana camara (Lantana), which was seen as an exotic novelty (Kannan
et al. 2013). As a result, many former British colonies share similar issues with
invasive ornamental plants brought in by colonial settlers. Collecting exotic plants
for newly established public or private botanical gardens was a novelty within the
colonies, and was a well-remunerated occupation and promoted by acclimatisation
societies (Janick 2007).
By the 1900s appreciation and pride for native flora grew substantially and there
was less attachment to species of the homeland by settlers (van Sittert 2003; Bennett
2015). By the mid-1900s, species were often introduced or purposefully dispersed in
the context of livelihood development or environmental restoration, and promoted
on a mass-scale by the state and non-governmental organisations alike (Carruthers
et al. 2011), and less so to fulfil a sense of place for elite settlers or for primary
24 The Social Dimensions of Biological Invasions in South Africa
705
and Continue to Reflect the Social Ethos of the Time
A vast number of alien species have been and continue to be purposefully or
accidentally introduced into South Africa by people for various reasons (Richardson
et al. 2003). Van Sittert (2002) argues that “biological invasions are thus intrinsically historical processes primarily shaped not by the biology of the invader, but by
the shifting cultural values of the invaded society”. We suggest that most motivations for introductions are driven by an ethos that evolves over time and relates
closely to social fashions, political-economic circumstances and scientific paradigms
(Carruthers et al. 2011). To discuss this, we highlight differences in motivations for
introducing alien species during three broad time periods—but we acknowledge
there are subtler trends within the broad timelines we outline.
A substantial number of alien species were introduced and established during the
colonial period (Bennett and van Sittert 2019)—often with the ethos of making
“improvements” to colony landscapes and economies and for botanical interest
(Carruthers et al. 2011). Such introductions were strongly influenced by the broad
landscape context of South Africa. For example, many tree species were introduced
for forestry, linked to economic development, as the country is poorly endowed with
natural forests for timber (Bennett and Kruger 2015). Yet other introductions during
this period were driven by emotionally related values—in the then Cape Colony
Pinus species (Pines) were planted by settlers in the 1700s, partly to create a sense of
place and familiarity within the treeless landscapes. Similarly, Oncorhynchus mykiss
(Rainbow Trout) was introduced to improve sense of place and counteract nostalgia
for fly fishing by local settler elites from Europe (Alletson 1997; Brown 2013). This
phenomenon is emphasised by Thompson (1913) “The Colonialist, especially of
British blood, seemed unable to finally settle down in a new land until many of the
animals and plants that minister his pleasure or profit in the homeland had followed
him...”. Canavan et al. (2018) showed that even slaves transported to South Africa
during the colonisation by the Dutch East India Company (1652–1795) brought
useful species, like bamboos, from their native lands with them. During the colonial
period, many aesthetically pleasing species were also transferred between colonies,
such as Lantana camara (Lantana), which was seen as an exotic novelty (Kannan
et al. 2013). As a result, many former British colonies share similar issues with
invasive ornamental plants brought in by colonial settlers. Collecting exotic plants
for newly established public or private botanical gardens was a novelty within the
colonies, and was a well-remunerated occupation and promoted by acclimatisation
societies (Janick 2007).
By the 1900s appreciation and pride for native flora grew substantially and there
was less attachment to species of the homeland by settlers (van Sittert 2003; Bennett
2015). By the mid-1900s, species were often introduced or purposefully dispersed in
the context of livelihood development or environmental restoration, and promoted
on a mass-scale by the state and non-governmental organisations alike (Carruthers
et al. 2011), and less so to fulfil a sense of place for elite settlers or for primary
24 The Social Dimensions of Biological Invasions in South Africa
705