555
20.2.1 Examples of Domestic or Regional Conflicts
Some conflicts remain within a single country or region within a country. For example,
the recent 5-year drought in California (2012–2017) had a huge impact throughout
the FEW system. Persistent drought and reduced winter snowpack resulted in record
low flows, saltwater intrusion, depleted groundwater aquifers, and subsiding land
levels. Drought reduced hydroelectric production by 57,000 GWh from 2011–2015.
Natural gas combustion replaced the lost hydroelectric potential, costing ratepayers about $2 billion dollars (Gleick 2015). Food production also suffered; producers had limited or no ability to irrigate crops. In many areas, they turned to
pumping groundwater, thus increasing electricity costs and exacerbating the
decline of groundwater levels despite a new statewide groundwater law enacted in
2014. The impacts of withdrawals remain as groundwater levels had not yet recovered into 2019.
This California drought highlighted significant tension between different communities such as between the agricultural community and those working to protect
endangered fish species. Because of litigation and agency regulations, water contracted for delivery in Central and Southern California was left in streams to provide
flow for endangered salmon and Delta smelt. Producers bought water from other
sources, drilled wells, or let fields to go fallow. In 2016, California traded drought
for floods (see e.g., Stockton 2017).
Even with more precipitation, California has swung between both flood and dry
conditions. In 2017 and 2018, periods of extremely dry conditions and sparks from
electricity lines led to catastrophic wildfires that killed numerous people and led to
widespread property damage. The 2017 wildfire season inflicted the most damage to
California communities, topped only by the 2018 wildfire season. The continued
extremes have placed a significant strain on California’s statewide system for food,
energy, and water and will continue to do so into the future. In early 2019, California’s
largest utility, PG&E, declared bankruptcy over its link to recent fires and as fire season began, started shutting down the electricity system to prevent fire, thus raising
considerable uncertainty about energy supplies (Figs. 20.1 and 20.2).
Impacts to food, energy, and water may also play out in a regional context that
cross state or country boundaries (Brown et al. 2015). For example, the Ogallala
aquifer stretches from Nebraska south to Texas, providing a crucial water supply for
corn, wheat, and cattle production in a 20 billion U.S. dollars/year industry (Parker
2016). This area is heavily dependent on irrigation made possible after World War
II because of both inexpensive energy and better pumping technology. However,
excessive pumping has depleted the water table to record low levels faster than the
system is being recharged (Fig. 20.3).
Producers have been left with hard choices: use less water to slow depletion and
bear the economic loss in the near term or continue pumping at normal levels to
maintain production but face a longer-term total loss of water (Bloomberg 2016).
More energy is required to drill deeper into the aquifer, water is harder to obtain,
and the impact on food security is heightened (see, e.g., Steward et al. 2013).
20 Managing Human Conflicts
20.2.1 Examples of Domestic or Regional Conflicts
Some conflicts remain within a single country or region within a country. For example,
the recent 5-year drought in California (2012–2017) had a huge impact throughout
the FEW system. Persistent drought and reduced winter snowpack resulted in record
low flows, saltwater intrusion, depleted groundwater aquifers, and subsiding land
levels. Drought reduced hydroelectric production by 57,000 GWh from 2011–2015.
Natural gas combustion replaced the lost hydroelectric potential, costing ratepayers about $2 billion dollars (Gleick 2015). Food production also suffered; producers had limited or no ability to irrigate crops. In many areas, they turned to
pumping groundwater, thus increasing electricity costs and exacerbating the
decline of groundwater levels despite a new statewide groundwater law enacted in
2014. The impacts of withdrawals remain as groundwater levels had not yet recovered into 2019.
This California drought highlighted significant tension between different communities such as between the agricultural community and those working to protect
endangered fish species. Because of litigation and agency regulations, water contracted for delivery in Central and Southern California was left in streams to provide
flow for endangered salmon and Delta smelt. Producers bought water from other
sources, drilled wells, or let fields to go fallow. In 2016, California traded drought
for floods (see e.g., Stockton 2017).
Even with more precipitation, California has swung between both flood and dry
conditions. In 2017 and 2018, periods of extremely dry conditions and sparks from
electricity lines led to catastrophic wildfires that killed numerous people and led to
widespread property damage. The 2017 wildfire season inflicted the most damage to
California communities, topped only by the 2018 wildfire season. The continued
extremes have placed a significant strain on California’s statewide system for food,
energy, and water and will continue to do so into the future. In early 2019, California’s
largest utility, PG&E, declared bankruptcy over its link to recent fires and as fire season began, started shutting down the electricity system to prevent fire, thus raising
considerable uncertainty about energy supplies (Figs. 20.1 and 20.2).
Impacts to food, energy, and water may also play out in a regional context that
cross state or country boundaries (Brown et al. 2015). For example, the Ogallala
aquifer stretches from Nebraska south to Texas, providing a crucial water supply for
corn, wheat, and cattle production in a 20 billion U.S. dollars/year industry (Parker
2016). This area is heavily dependent on irrigation made possible after World War
II because of both inexpensive energy and better pumping technology. However,
excessive pumping has depleted the water table to record low levels faster than the
system is being recharged (Fig. 20.3).
Producers have been left with hard choices: use less water to slow depletion and
bear the economic loss in the near term or continue pumping at normal levels to
maintain production but face a longer-term total loss of water (Bloomberg 2016).
More energy is required to drill deeper into the aquifer, water is harder to obtain,
and the impact on food security is heightened (see, e.g., Steward et al. 2013).
20 Managing Human Conflicts