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Soft infrastructure associated with coal and mining involves consumers, owners, financiers, and governance.
Coal and mining products are almost entirely consumed by other producers in
the energy and manufacturing sectors, and are often subject to significant materialsmanufacturing and refining before delivery further down the supply chain. The mining infrastructure is owned by large private corporations which are often
internationally managed, and is usually financed by private or sovereign-wealth
concerns. Mining operations are owned by many concerns around the world, but
they are particularly important and emphasized in developing nations. Mining is
often extremely damaging to the environment (especially to freshwater ecosystems), and is often very hazardous to workers, and is therefore subject to heavy
regulatory oversight in most countries—but this oversight is frequently found insufficient to prevent environmental and human damage, even in the USA. Cleanup of
toxic materials at abandoned or financially failed mining operations is a long-term
environmental and economic problem in many places.
10.3.3 Energy: Natural Gas
Natural Gas (FC: 2215196) is extracted from onshore and offshore wells through
conventional drilling and hydraulic fracturing operations. From the wellhead, raw
natural gas it is pumped to a processing plant to be cleaned by separating impurities,
fluids, and various hydrocarbons. Water, oil, and sulfur are some of the waste products (FC: 5565000) of this process. Processing plants produce “pipeline quality”
dry natural gas, also known as methane and when needed stored in underground
storage. Dry natural gas reaches the customers in two ways. If it is going to an overseas market, it goes through a liquid natural gas (LNG) plant to be liquefied and
loaded onto tanker ships at an LNG shipping terminal. Upon arrival, it would go
through the regasification process and sent to consumers through a market hub. If it
is not going to an overseas market, it goes through a market hub to be priced and
traded. The market hubs are located at the intersection of major pipeline systems
(i.e., Henry Hub in Louisiana, which is the principal hub in the USA) and serve
local distribution companies, power plants, and industrial manufacturing facilities.
Distribution companies mainly serve industrial, commercial, business, and residential consumers through distribution pipeline systems that they build and maintain.
However, depending on location they also may serve power plants and industrial
manufacturing facilities (Fig. 10.4).
Processing plant produces another product called natural gas liquids (NGL). This
product is sent to a fractionator where they are broken down to their base components, such as ethane, propane, t and butane (Purity NGLs). Purity NGLs are stored
at a NCG storage facility and sold to petrochemical plants to be turned into chemical products that industrial customers need such as ethylene, propylene, butadiene,
and aromatics.
The extraction and processing stages generate wastewater (FC: 3330000) as well
as non-potable reclaimed water (FC: 3342999). In the extraction stage, water is
10 Infrastructure
Soft infrastructure associated with coal and mining involves consumers, owners, financiers, and governance.
Coal and mining products are almost entirely consumed by other producers in
the energy and manufacturing sectors, and are often subject to significant materialsmanufacturing and refining before delivery further down the supply chain. The mining infrastructure is owned by large private corporations which are often
internationally managed, and is usually financed by private or sovereign-wealth
concerns. Mining operations are owned by many concerns around the world, but
they are particularly important and emphasized in developing nations. Mining is
often extremely damaging to the environment (especially to freshwater ecosystems), and is often very hazardous to workers, and is therefore subject to heavy
regulatory oversight in most countries—but this oversight is frequently found insufficient to prevent environmental and human damage, even in the USA. Cleanup of
toxic materials at abandoned or financially failed mining operations is a long-term
environmental and economic problem in many places.
10.3.3 Energy: Natural Gas
Natural Gas (FC: 2215196) is extracted from onshore and offshore wells through
conventional drilling and hydraulic fracturing operations. From the wellhead, raw
natural gas it is pumped to a processing plant to be cleaned by separating impurities,
fluids, and various hydrocarbons. Water, oil, and sulfur are some of the waste products (FC: 5565000) of this process. Processing plants produce “pipeline quality”
dry natural gas, also known as methane and when needed stored in underground
storage. Dry natural gas reaches the customers in two ways. If it is going to an overseas market, it goes through a liquid natural gas (LNG) plant to be liquefied and
loaded onto tanker ships at an LNG shipping terminal. Upon arrival, it would go
through the regasification process and sent to consumers through a market hub. If it
is not going to an overseas market, it goes through a market hub to be priced and
traded. The market hubs are located at the intersection of major pipeline systems
(i.e., Henry Hub in Louisiana, which is the principal hub in the USA) and serve
local distribution companies, power plants, and industrial manufacturing facilities.
Distribution companies mainly serve industrial, commercial, business, and residential consumers through distribution pipeline systems that they build and maintain.
However, depending on location they also may serve power plants and industrial
manufacturing facilities (Fig. 10.4).
Processing plant produces another product called natural gas liquids (NGL). This
product is sent to a fractionator where they are broken down to their base components, such as ethane, propane, t and butane (Purity NGLs). Purity NGLs are stored
at a NCG storage facility and sold to petrochemical plants to be turned into chemical products that industrial customers need such as ethylene, propylene, butadiene,
and aromatics.
The extraction and processing stages generate wastewater (FC: 3330000) as well
as non-potable reclaimed water (FC: 3342999). In the extraction stage, water is
10 Infrastructure