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In our food systems, ecosystems services are vital to the functioning of our entire
agricultural system. Food supply, fresh water and clean air are all examples of provisioning services. Soil biota and soil organic matter (SOM), nutrient cycling, and
crop pollination are key supporting services that play critical roles in driving ecological processes that lead to ecosystem goods and services, upon which human
civilization is predicated (Lavelle 1997). Soil health also plays an important role in
regard to mitigating climate change and combatting land degradation for agricultural production. Regulating services control water and air quality, climate and pest
populations, while cultural ecosystem services can be seen in the exchange and
development of seeds, spiritual values, and food culture.
In our waterways, freshwater ecosystems including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams,
springs, and wetlands are home to approximately 126,000 species. In addition to
being an important home for biodiversity, these aquatic ecosystems provide provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services that underpin the
health, livelihoods, and well-being of billions of people (Aylward et al. 2005). Food
supply chains, for example, account for 92% of the world’s freshwater consumption
and about 20% of the energy (Allan and Matthews 2016). Healthy functioning
freshwater ecosystems not only underpin our food systems and are deeply connected to our energy systems they also provide us with the majority of our drinking
water. Freshwater is a provisioning service providing water for domestic use, power
generation, irrigation, and transportation. Inland waterways, including rivers, wetlands, and lakes also depend on the hydrological cycle and freshwater. These water
bodies provide recreational and cultural values and also support inland fisheries,
which are a critical livelihood and nutrition source for millions of people.
Some energy systems are also dependent on other ecosystem services.
Approximately 10% of the world's energy consumption is supplied by ecosystem
services such as fuelwood and plant material, and this rises to up to 40% of the
energy consumption in developing countries (World Energy Council 2016). The
food–energy–water nexus and ecosystem services are deeply interlinked, but they
are currently under significant stress.
The shift to the Anthropocene, the current geological age during which human
activity has been and continues to be the dominant influence on climate and the
environment, has resulted in a rising population, changing food habits, increased
consumption and waste, and climate change that have all increased the threats to
and demands on ecosystems and ecosystem services (Vörösmarty et al. 2010).
9.1.1 Ecological Concepts that Frame the Nexus
The complexity of food, energy, and water systems as discussed in Chap. 2—and
the complex interactions of ecological processes with social systems—makes it
challenging to provide a brief summary of the underlying environmental processes
that are the most applicable to the nexus. The purpose of discussing the processes
themselves in Sect. 9.2 therefore will be to highlight the areas of natural science in
9 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services
In our food systems, ecosystems services are vital to the functioning of our entire
agricultural system. Food supply, fresh water and clean air are all examples of provisioning services. Soil biota and soil organic matter (SOM), nutrient cycling, and
crop pollination are key supporting services that play critical roles in driving ecological processes that lead to ecosystem goods and services, upon which human
civilization is predicated (Lavelle 1997). Soil health also plays an important role in
regard to mitigating climate change and combatting land degradation for agricultural production. Regulating services control water and air quality, climate and pest
populations, while cultural ecosystem services can be seen in the exchange and
development of seeds, spiritual values, and food culture.
In our waterways, freshwater ecosystems including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams,
springs, and wetlands are home to approximately 126,000 species. In addition to
being an important home for biodiversity, these aquatic ecosystems provide provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services that underpin the
health, livelihoods, and well-being of billions of people (Aylward et al. 2005). Food
supply chains, for example, account for 92% of the world’s freshwater consumption
and about 20% of the energy (Allan and Matthews 2016). Healthy functioning
freshwater ecosystems not only underpin our food systems and are deeply connected to our energy systems they also provide us with the majority of our drinking
water. Freshwater is a provisioning service providing water for domestic use, power
generation, irrigation, and transportation. Inland waterways, including rivers, wetlands, and lakes also depend on the hydrological cycle and freshwater. These water
bodies provide recreational and cultural values and also support inland fisheries,
which are a critical livelihood and nutrition source for millions of people.
Some energy systems are also dependent on other ecosystem services.
Approximately 10% of the world's energy consumption is supplied by ecosystem
services such as fuelwood and plant material, and this rises to up to 40% of the
energy consumption in developing countries (World Energy Council 2016). The
food–energy–water nexus and ecosystem services are deeply interlinked, but they
are currently under significant stress.
The shift to the Anthropocene, the current geological age during which human
activity has been and continues to be the dominant influence on climate and the
environment, has resulted in a rising population, changing food habits, increased
consumption and waste, and climate change that have all increased the threats to
and demands on ecosystems and ecosystem services (Vörösmarty et al. 2010).
9.1.1 Ecological Concepts that Frame the Nexus
The complexity of food, energy, and water systems as discussed in Chap. 2—and
the complex interactions of ecological processes with social systems—makes it
challenging to provide a brief summary of the underlying environmental processes
that are the most applicable to the nexus. The purpose of discussing the processes
themselves in Sect. 9.2 therefore will be to highlight the areas of natural science in
9 Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services