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to further intensify pressure on the world's food, energy, and water systems and the
environment (Ringler et al. 2016).
Ecosystems underpin the functionality and health of the food–energy–water
nexus. Although the environment and ecosystems are not explicit within many definitions of the nexus, without functioning ecosystems and healthy stock and flow of
ecosystem services our global water and food systems and our energy provision
would be immeasurably impacted.
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 1992) defines an
ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.” For the purpose of this chapter we use Walker et al. (2006) definition of ecosystem services as
“the combined actions of the species in an ecosystem that perform functions of
value to society.” This definition highlights links between ecosystems and people
with an emphasis on the system that is key to the delivery of services.
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humankind derives from ecosystems,
and can be usefully grouped into four broad categories:
• provisioning, such as the production of food and water;
• regulating, such as the control of climate and disease;
• supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and
• cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
In addition to these classifications, Walker et al. (2006) include a classification
for habitat services that comprise the maintenance of the life cycles of individual
species and their genetic diversity, through habitat quality and quantity, e.g., natural
vegetation type, structure and distribution that supports a sufficiently diverse genepool to sustain a species; adequate reproductive rates for an animal species to be
able to be used as food; habitat which serves to support pollinator or pest control
agents that are beneficial to agricultural systems. Habitats at the nexus primarily
protect and maintain stocks, flows and interrelationships of biologically diverse
plant and animal species, which underpin and ensure the resilience of many of the
provisioning, regulating and cultural services provided by ecosystems.
There are many nexus interlinkages, dependencies, and trade-offs within ecosystem services. Food, water and some types of energy themselves can be both provisioning and supporting services depending on how they are used.
Despite the importance of ecosystem services to our health and well-being and
economies, they are often significantly undervalued in our current economic, political, and social systems.
Freshwater ecosystems, for example, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams,
springs, and wetlands are important habitats for diverse species and provide provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services that underpin the
health, livelihoods, and well-being of billions of people (Matthews 2016). Despite
their importance and their links to food, energy, and water, freshwater ecosystems
are some of the most heavily altered ecosystems on earth, and these alterations have
had significant negative impacts on their health and functionality (ecosystem health
and ecosystem integrity) (Carpenter et al. 2011).
N. Matthews et al.
to further intensify pressure on the world's food, energy, and water systems and the
environment (Ringler et al. 2016).
Ecosystems underpin the functionality and health of the food–energy–water
nexus. Although the environment and ecosystems are not explicit within many definitions of the nexus, without functioning ecosystems and healthy stock and flow of
ecosystem services our global water and food systems and our energy provision
would be immeasurably impacted.
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 1992) defines an
ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.” For the purpose of this chapter we use Walker et al. (2006) definition of ecosystem services as
“the combined actions of the species in an ecosystem that perform functions of
value to society.” This definition highlights links between ecosystems and people
with an emphasis on the system that is key to the delivery of services.
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humankind derives from ecosystems,
and can be usefully grouped into four broad categories:
• provisioning, such as the production of food and water;
• regulating, such as the control of climate and disease;
• supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and
• cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
In addition to these classifications, Walker et al. (2006) include a classification
for habitat services that comprise the maintenance of the life cycles of individual
species and their genetic diversity, through habitat quality and quantity, e.g., natural
vegetation type, structure and distribution that supports a sufficiently diverse genepool to sustain a species; adequate reproductive rates for an animal species to be
able to be used as food; habitat which serves to support pollinator or pest control
agents that are beneficial to agricultural systems. Habitats at the nexus primarily
protect and maintain stocks, flows and interrelationships of biologically diverse
plant and animal species, which underpin and ensure the resilience of many of the
provisioning, regulating and cultural services provided by ecosystems.
There are many nexus interlinkages, dependencies, and trade-offs within ecosystem services. Food, water and some types of energy themselves can be both provisioning and supporting services depending on how they are used.
Despite the importance of ecosystem services to our health and well-being and
economies, they are often significantly undervalued in our current economic, political, and social systems.
Freshwater ecosystems, for example, including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams,
springs, and wetlands are important habitats for diverse species and provide provisioning, supporting, regulating and cultural ecosystem services that underpin the
health, livelihoods, and well-being of billions of people (Matthews 2016). Despite
their importance and their links to food, energy, and water, freshwater ecosystems
are some of the most heavily altered ecosystems on earth, and these alterations have
had significant negative impacts on their health and functionality (ecosystem health
and ecosystem integrity) (Carpenter et al. 2011).
N. Matthews et al.