117
systems, making the water undrinkable. Severe blooms also limit recreation activities on the lake (see Chap. 19).
HABs in Lake Erie are due in large part to increased phosphorus entering the
lake. These blooms have become more frequent and severe in recent years. This is
due to several factors, including more frequent and intense rainfall events that
release soil nutrients from surrounding agricultural land to streams and rivers that
flow into Lake Erie (Bosch et al. 2014; Michalak et al. 2013). Farmers’ application
and management of fertilizers containing phosphorus, therefore, play a significant
role in these HABs.
In many watersheds where downstream eutrophication is a problem, the focus of
the coupled human-natural system is on agency decision-makers, farmers, and the
interconnectedness between soil, nutrient management, water quality, and regional
climate patterns (Michalak 2013; Wilson et al. 2014). Agency decision-makers
grapple with the inherent conflict between annual economic goals (e.g., maximizing
crop production within a growing season) and long-term protection for both the
downstream ecological system and the regional economy. Individual farmers grapple with a similar conflict between their short-term goals of maximizing profits and
personal and societal goals of protecting soil and water quality over larger time
scales (i.e., decades or possibly generations).
Such temporal mismatches can delay action while actors within the human system struggle to deal with these difficult trade-offs. Even when individual and societal objectives are aligned across time, there might be delays between policy
implementation and individual compliance, especially where new capital-intensive
technologies or equipment are required, or new and unfamiliar nutrient management practices are recommended. Further, farmers’ intentions to implement best
management practices (BMPs) such as injecting fertilizer beneath the surface of the
soil or using cover crops on their farms are not always translated into action, as
demonstrated by Fig. 4.4. The figure shows that a majority of farmers intend to and
use several recommended practices (soil testing and applying fertilizer at the right
time). However, other practices are used at much lower rates despite good intentions
to use the practice by a majority of motivated farmers (cover crops, subsurface
placement). Several recent surveys of farmers in the western Lake Erie basin provide some insight into the heterogeneity that exists in farmer land management
decisions, as well as to whether or not current policies are effectively leading to
behavioral change.
Several regulations and programs have been implemented in an effort to reduce
the loss of nutrients from agricultural land in the western Lake Erie basin. Farmers
in Ohio must now become certified fertilizer applicators to ensure that they understand how best to minimize nutrient loss, and applying fertilizer on saturated or
frozen ground is now prohibited (Ohio Senate Bill 150, 2014). Despite these regulatory changes, HABs in the lake continue to occur. BMPs have been promoted
through both educational efforts and incentive-based programs. Despite the fact that
these BMPs show some promise in decreasing the harmful algal blooms in Lake
Erie (Scavia et al. 2017), uptake has been relatively low over time (Wilson
et al. 2019).
4 Human Behavior and Adaptation
systems, making the water undrinkable. Severe blooms also limit recreation activities on the lake (see Chap. 19).
HABs in Lake Erie are due in large part to increased phosphorus entering the
lake. These blooms have become more frequent and severe in recent years. This is
due to several factors, including more frequent and intense rainfall events that
release soil nutrients from surrounding agricultural land to streams and rivers that
flow into Lake Erie (Bosch et al. 2014; Michalak et al. 2013). Farmers’ application
and management of fertilizers containing phosphorus, therefore, play a significant
role in these HABs.
In many watersheds where downstream eutrophication is a problem, the focus of
the coupled human-natural system is on agency decision-makers, farmers, and the
interconnectedness between soil, nutrient management, water quality, and regional
climate patterns (Michalak 2013; Wilson et al. 2014). Agency decision-makers
grapple with the inherent conflict between annual economic goals (e.g., maximizing
crop production within a growing season) and long-term protection for both the
downstream ecological system and the regional economy. Individual farmers grapple with a similar conflict between their short-term goals of maximizing profits and
personal and societal goals of protecting soil and water quality over larger time
scales (i.e., decades or possibly generations).
Such temporal mismatches can delay action while actors within the human system struggle to deal with these difficult trade-offs. Even when individual and societal objectives are aligned across time, there might be delays between policy
implementation and individual compliance, especially where new capital-intensive
technologies or equipment are required, or new and unfamiliar nutrient management practices are recommended. Further, farmers’ intentions to implement best
management practices (BMPs) such as injecting fertilizer beneath the surface of the
soil or using cover crops on their farms are not always translated into action, as
demonstrated by Fig. 4.4. The figure shows that a majority of farmers intend to and
use several recommended practices (soil testing and applying fertilizer at the right
time). However, other practices are used at much lower rates despite good intentions
to use the practice by a majority of motivated farmers (cover crops, subsurface
placement). Several recent surveys of farmers in the western Lake Erie basin provide some insight into the heterogeneity that exists in farmer land management
decisions, as well as to whether or not current policies are effectively leading to
behavioral change.
Several regulations and programs have been implemented in an effort to reduce
the loss of nutrients from agricultural land in the western Lake Erie basin. Farmers
in Ohio must now become certified fertilizer applicators to ensure that they understand how best to minimize nutrient loss, and applying fertilizer on saturated or
frozen ground is now prohibited (Ohio Senate Bill 150, 2014). Despite these regulatory changes, HABs in the lake continue to occur. BMPs have been promoted
through both educational efforts and incentive-based programs. Despite the fact that
these BMPs show some promise in decreasing the harmful algal blooms in Lake
Erie (Scavia et al. 2017), uptake has been relatively low over time (Wilson
et al. 2019).
4 Human Behavior and Adaptation