xii
4 Changes on Earth as a Result of Interaction Between
the Society and Nature � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 75
4.1 Changes in the Outer Boundary Zone of the Earth’s Crust . . . 75
4.1.1 Exploitation and Processing of the Useful Material
of the Crust and Their Environmental Effects . . . . . . . 76
4.1.2 Transformation of the Earth’s Surface:
Construction and Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2 Changes in the Pedosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.1 Major Processes Contributing
to Soil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.2 Effects of Using Fertilisers on Nitrogen
and Phosphorus Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.3 Area Available for Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2.4 Effects of Basic Agricultural Systems
on Soils and Production Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.3 Changes in the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.1 Global Hydrological Cycle and Water Reservoirs . . . . 134
4.3.2 Contamination of Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.3 State of Fresh Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.4 Fresh Water Scarcity, Polluted Potable
Water and Their Consequences on the Society . . . . . . 159
4.4 Changes in the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.4.1 Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.4.2 Biosphere Modified by Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.4.3 Accelerating Deterioration of the Biosphere:
The Sixth Great Extinction Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.5 Changes in the Atmosphere Owing to Human
Impacts and Their Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.5.1 Increasing Amount of Greenhouse Gases
and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.5.2 Expected Trends and Consequences
of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.5.3 Gases Inducing Acid Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.5.4 Present and Future of the Ozone Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5 Structure and Operation of the Global Society
(Anthroposphere) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 203
5.1 Globalisation: Nation-States: Environment
and Nature Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.2 Global and National Institutes Controlling
the Operation of the Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.3 Global Civil Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.4 Wars, Destroying the Society and the Natural
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.5 The New or Digital Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.6 “Multi-Layered” Global Society and Sustainable
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Contents
4 Changes on Earth as a Result of Interaction Between
the Society and Nature � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 75
4.1 Changes in the Outer Boundary Zone of the Earth’s Crust . . . 75
4.1.1 Exploitation and Processing of the Useful Material
of the Crust and Their Environmental Effects . . . . . . . 76
4.1.2 Transformation of the Earth’s Surface:
Construction and Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2 Changes in the Pedosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.1 Major Processes Contributing
to Soil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.2 Effects of Using Fertilisers on Nitrogen
and Phosphorus Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.2.3 Area Available for Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.2.4 Effects of Basic Agricultural Systems
on Soils and Production Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.3 Changes in the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.3.1 Global Hydrological Cycle and Water Reservoirs . . . . 134
4.3.2 Contamination of Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.3 State of Fresh Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.4 Fresh Water Scarcity, Polluted Potable
Water and Their Consequences on the Society . . . . . . 159
4.4 Changes in the Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.4.1 Carbon Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.4.2 Biosphere Modified by Humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.4.3 Accelerating Deterioration of the Biosphere:
The Sixth Great Extinction Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.5 Changes in the Atmosphere Owing to Human
Impacts and Their Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.5.1 Increasing Amount of Greenhouse Gases
and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.5.2 Expected Trends and Consequences
of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.5.3 Gases Inducing Acid Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.5.4 Present and Future of the Ozone Shield . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5 Structure and Operation of the Global Society
(Anthroposphere) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 203
5.1 Globalisation: Nation-States: Environment
and Nature Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.2 Global and National Institutes Controlling
the Operation of the Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.3 Global Civil Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.4 Wars, Destroying the Society and the Natural
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.5 The New or Digital Globalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.6 “Multi-Layered” Global Society and Sustainable
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Contents