90
were calls for a reduction of the country’s reliance on nuclear power. Despite several protests some power plants were gradually
restarted. The Ministry of Economy, Trade
and Industry declared in 2017 that if Japan is
to meet its obligations under the Paris
Agreement the ratio of nuclear energy has to
be increased in the energy mix of the country
to around 20–22%. Currently 21 restart applications are pending and further 12 units are
estimated to be installed back in service by
2025 (Silverstein 2017).
Although natural uraninite is easier to find due
to its radioactivity than most fuel material, its
mining and processing hold significant risks. In
nature several uranium isotopes (U-234, U-235,
U-238) occur together; the radioactivity of the
ore and the surrounding rocks is mostly given by
radium, one daughter element of the decay of
uranium. No matter whether uranium is recovered in underground or open-pit mines or via insitu recovery (leaching) the ore has to be
separated from the parent rock using chemicals.
In-situ recovery of course has smaller environmental footprint as the amount of removed rock
is much smaller than in the case of conventional
mining. When dry rock is mined it has to be
milled and processed. Both the crushed, ground
rock and the solution from in-situ recovery are
leached in tanks using sulphuric acid to liberate
the mineral particles. The undissolved barren
rock and mineral particles settle out of the solution and such tailings are separated from the uranium-rich solution by filtering. Uranium is
recovered from the remaining solution by some
kind of ion exchange and precipitation using also
strong acids or chloride solution, ammonium sulphate solution and hydrogen peroxide. Finally
the material is dewatered and roasted to produce
U 3 O 8 , also called “yellowcake” in the form of
which uranium is marketed. This yellowcake is
only mildly radioactive, most of the radioactivity
is left in the tailings in the form of daughter elements. The safe, long-term disposal of tailings in
the process of mining, milling and processing
presents a significant concern, and groundwater
is most vulnerable. The radioactivity of the ore
and the leftover by-products increase the risk of
lung cancer (Roscoe et al. 1989, 1995).
4.1.1.4 Minerals for Modern
Technology
As shown in Fig. 4.15 lithium production
increased worldwide after the 1950s. This
increase, however, became even more rapid after
the turn of the millennium as a result of the widespread adoption of lithium batteries for many
purposes. The average growth rate over the last
decade was 8.1% (Mohr et al. 2012).
More recent trends of global lithium production indicate an increase of 31% between 2015
and 2016 (Brown et al. 2018). According to
USGS data, another 13% increase can be
observed in 2017 to about 40,000 tonnes (USGS
2018). These reflect the significant recent
increased demand for lithium, particularly in
connection with batteries for electric-powered
vehicles. Increased production took place in
Argentina, Chile and Australia (Brown et al.
2018).
Lithium ion batteries are also needed for
mobile devices (notebooks, IPods, tablets, cell
phones, etc.) the production of which has taken
off in recent years. The production of computers,
data storage devices and mobile devices also
intensified the demand for some rarely mined
elements the mining and processing of which
require highly toxic chemicals and present an
increasing risk to both human health and the
environment.
Central processing units (CPUs) are made
of silicon with some additional elements like
arsenic or gallium. Pure silicon is generally
made by the reduction of quartzite or sand conducted usually in the presence of scrap iron
producing ferrosilicon. Ferrosilicon production
is carried out in a relatively high number of
4 Changes on Earth as a Result of Interaction Between the Society and Nature
were calls for a reduction of the country’s reliance on nuclear power. Despite several protests some power plants were gradually
restarted. The Ministry of Economy, Trade
and Industry declared in 2017 that if Japan is
to meet its obligations under the Paris
Agreement the ratio of nuclear energy has to
be increased in the energy mix of the country
to around 20–22%. Currently 21 restart applications are pending and further 12 units are
estimated to be installed back in service by
2025 (Silverstein 2017).
Although natural uraninite is easier to find due
to its radioactivity than most fuel material, its
mining and processing hold significant risks. In
nature several uranium isotopes (U-234, U-235,
U-238) occur together; the radioactivity of the
ore and the surrounding rocks is mostly given by
radium, one daughter element of the decay of
uranium. No matter whether uranium is recovered in underground or open-pit mines or via insitu recovery (leaching) the ore has to be
separated from the parent rock using chemicals.
In-situ recovery of course has smaller environmental footprint as the amount of removed rock
is much smaller than in the case of conventional
mining. When dry rock is mined it has to be
milled and processed. Both the crushed, ground
rock and the solution from in-situ recovery are
leached in tanks using sulphuric acid to liberate
the mineral particles. The undissolved barren
rock and mineral particles settle out of the solution and such tailings are separated from the uranium-rich solution by filtering. Uranium is
recovered from the remaining solution by some
kind of ion exchange and precipitation using also
strong acids or chloride solution, ammonium sulphate solution and hydrogen peroxide. Finally
the material is dewatered and roasted to produce
U 3 O 8 , also called “yellowcake” in the form of
which uranium is marketed. This yellowcake is
only mildly radioactive, most of the radioactivity
is left in the tailings in the form of daughter elements. The safe, long-term disposal of tailings in
the process of mining, milling and processing
presents a significant concern, and groundwater
is most vulnerable. The radioactivity of the ore
and the leftover by-products increase the risk of
lung cancer (Roscoe et al. 1989, 1995).
4.1.1.4 Minerals for Modern
Technology
As shown in Fig. 4.15 lithium production
increased worldwide after the 1950s. This
increase, however, became even more rapid after
the turn of the millennium as a result of the widespread adoption of lithium batteries for many
purposes. The average growth rate over the last
decade was 8.1% (Mohr et al. 2012).
More recent trends of global lithium production indicate an increase of 31% between 2015
and 2016 (Brown et al. 2018). According to
USGS data, another 13% increase can be
observed in 2017 to about 40,000 tonnes (USGS
2018). These reflect the significant recent
increased demand for lithium, particularly in
connection with batteries for electric-powered
vehicles. Increased production took place in
Argentina, Chile and Australia (Brown et al.
2018).
Lithium ion batteries are also needed for
mobile devices (notebooks, IPods, tablets, cell
phones, etc.) the production of which has taken
off in recent years. The production of computers,
data storage devices and mobile devices also
intensified the demand for some rarely mined
elements the mining and processing of which
require highly toxic chemicals and present an
increasing risk to both human health and the
environment.
Central processing units (CPUs) are made
of silicon with some additional elements like
arsenic or gallium. Pure silicon is generally
made by the reduction of quartzite or sand conducted usually in the presence of scrap iron
producing ferrosilicon. Ferrosilicon production
is carried out in a relatively high number of
4 Changes on Earth as a Result of Interaction Between the Society and Nature