conditions like pH or water hardness. It is known for its high ecotoxicity to aquatic
species with EC50 within low μg/L concentrations, and it is often used as herbicide
or fungicide.
27.6.7 Synthetic Polymers and Additives
From all the possible combinations of monomers that could be used for synthesis of
polymers, several classes are dominantly used in diverse applications—namely
polycarboxylates, polyesters, styrine-acrylics, charged polymers (anionic, cationic,
amphoteric), or polyamines. The major environmental concerns are related to ubiquitous occurrence and heavy pollution even in remote ocean areas, poor (bio)
degradability, and currently diverse (mostly mechanic) biotic effects of small fragments of solid materials (microplastics). Direct acute ecotoxicity of the final polymers is usually low due to low bioavailability, (EC50s cannot be reached, i.e.,
>1000 mg/L in standard assays), but during long-term aging, leaching of both
small mono- to oligomers as well as additives may cause hazards.
A special group are perfluorinated high molecular weight polymers with various
advantageous properties (sold under trademarks like Teflon or Goretex). Their precursors (also referred as telomers) are perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which are ubiquitously distributed in the environment and biota. Acute ecotoxicity of these compounds is low, but due to the stability
of the perfluorochains, they may manifest chronic impacts on biota. In addition they
have also been associated with chronic diseases in humans, and their global regulation is being considered under the UNEP Stockholm Convention.
Properties of polymeric materials are advanced by additions of numerous plasticizers, stabilizers, or dyes. Additives may form up to dozens of percents of the total
polymeric mass. Especially phthalates (alkyl derivatives of phthalic acid) are
ubiquitously used and distributed in the air (bound to particles), water, or soil,
hence the attention of environmental scientists. Their acute toxicity and ecotoxicity
is relatively low. However, many phthalates are a matter of concern due to their
endocrine disruptive properties and possible chronic effects in vertebrates, mammals, and humans (Gennings et al. 2014; Howdeshell et al. 2017).
Another class of commonly used chemicals are bisphenols, namely bisphenol A,
whose toxicity has been broadly documented in literature (e.g., reviewed in
WHO/UNEP 2013). Many studies indicate toxicity in humans (miscarriages,
decreased birth weight, reproductive and sexual dysfunctions, breast and prostate
cancer). Similarly, chronic ecotoxicity has been documented also in other biota
(Canesi and Fabbri 2015). Other bisphenols have been much less studied (Rochester
and Bolden 2015) despite their relevant exposure levels.
566
L. Bláha and J. Hofman
species with EC50 within low μg/L concentrations, and it is often used as herbicide
or fungicide.
27.6.7 Synthetic Polymers and Additives
From all the possible combinations of monomers that could be used for synthesis of
polymers, several classes are dominantly used in diverse applications—namely
polycarboxylates, polyesters, styrine-acrylics, charged polymers (anionic, cationic,
amphoteric), or polyamines. The major environmental concerns are related to ubiquitous occurrence and heavy pollution even in remote ocean areas, poor (bio)
degradability, and currently diverse (mostly mechanic) biotic effects of small fragments of solid materials (microplastics). Direct acute ecotoxicity of the final polymers is usually low due to low bioavailability, (EC50s cannot be reached, i.e.,
>1000 mg/L in standard assays), but during long-term aging, leaching of both
small mono- to oligomers as well as additives may cause hazards.
A special group are perfluorinated high molecular weight polymers with various
advantageous properties (sold under trademarks like Teflon or Goretex). Their precursors (also referred as telomers) are perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which are ubiquitously distributed in the environment and biota. Acute ecotoxicity of these compounds is low, but due to the stability
of the perfluorochains, they may manifest chronic impacts on biota. In addition they
have also been associated with chronic diseases in humans, and their global regulation is being considered under the UNEP Stockholm Convention.
Properties of polymeric materials are advanced by additions of numerous plasticizers, stabilizers, or dyes. Additives may form up to dozens of percents of the total
polymeric mass. Especially phthalates (alkyl derivatives of phthalic acid) are
ubiquitously used and distributed in the air (bound to particles), water, or soil,
hence the attention of environmental scientists. Their acute toxicity and ecotoxicity
is relatively low. However, many phthalates are a matter of concern due to their
endocrine disruptive properties and possible chronic effects in vertebrates, mammals, and humans (Gennings et al. 2014; Howdeshell et al. 2017).
Another class of commonly used chemicals are bisphenols, namely bisphenol A,
whose toxicity has been broadly documented in literature (e.g., reviewed in
WHO/UNEP 2013). Many studies indicate toxicity in humans (miscarriages,
decreased birth weight, reproductive and sexual dysfunctions, breast and prostate
cancer). Similarly, chronic ecotoxicity has been documented also in other biota
(Canesi and Fabbri 2015). Other bisphenols have been much less studied (Rochester
and Bolden 2015) despite their relevant exposure levels.
566
L. Bláha and J. Hofman