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mation technology, transportation, and steel production. Nevertheless, the growth of
a given industrial sector depends not only on the efficient, sustainable procurement
of domestic resources but also on the critical analysis of resource availability in
international markets. In this scenario, urban mining emerges an interesting alternative in the effort to obtain scarce metals from electrical and electronic equipment at
the end of their life cycle (Jung Jo et al. 2017).
In addition to economic incentives, measures like effective environmental policies, methods to improve environmental awareness, the placement of recycling
banks in suitable locations, and the development of efficient mechanisms to collect
electrical and electronic equipment at the end of their life cycle should be devised
(Tesfaye et al. 2017). Improved separation, collection, and recycling of electrical
and electronic equipment are now seen as effective ways of obtaining metals, contributing to a sustainable economy and environment conservation and reducing the
demand for natural resources.
The geological scarcity of mineral resources has to be distinguished from the
economic shortage. The latter is a consequence of the former, with many associated
factors at play. The main difference between economic and geologic scarcity is the
fact that the latter is a structural and physical phenomenon, while the former is more
cyclical in character (Henckens et al. 2016). Market price is determined by the balance between supply and demand. Demand for mineral resources increases as a
result of the development of new applications, as observed in the use of rare earth
elements (REE) in electrical and electronic equipment, for instance. But the fast
industrial development in large countries such as China is another factor that
increases the demand for ores. In turn, demand may fall in the wake of a new,
cheaper replacement. Supply may also be influenced by decisions made by an oligopoly or monopoly. On the other hand, factors that reduce supply include accidents, strikes, and geopolitical actions.
Wen et al. (2015) developed a model to predict the demand, recycling potential,
and availability of copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), and iron (Fe). These metals are highly consumed in China, which was the largest steel producer in 1967,
1980, 1990, 2000, and in every year between 2007 and 2017, the year when the
country produced 49.7% of the world’s steel (Wen et al. 2015; World Steel
Association 1978, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014). In 2015 China led the production
of pig iron and was the main producer of Al between 2010 and 2017 (USGS 2016;
Statista 2017). Research indicates that primary copper and iron resources in China
will be exhausted in 10 and 30 years, respectively. This means that mining metals
will be a difficult task in the future. However, there are alternative ways to secure a
stable supply of metals, based on the recovery of metals in electrical and electronic
equipment, for instance.
The primary copper and iron resources may be effectively replaced by secondary
metals, as shown in Table 10.1.
It has been estimated that primary resources will be replaced by other sources in
the years between 2020 and 2040. These other sources include the recycling and
recovery of metals like copper and iron in E-waste, for instance, whose recovery
T. A. da Silveira et al.
mation technology, transportation, and steel production. Nevertheless, the growth of
a given industrial sector depends not only on the efficient, sustainable procurement
of domestic resources but also on the critical analysis of resource availability in
international markets. In this scenario, urban mining emerges an interesting alternative in the effort to obtain scarce metals from electrical and electronic equipment at
the end of their life cycle (Jung Jo et al. 2017).
In addition to economic incentives, measures like effective environmental policies, methods to improve environmental awareness, the placement of recycling
banks in suitable locations, and the development of efficient mechanisms to collect
electrical and electronic equipment at the end of their life cycle should be devised
(Tesfaye et al. 2017). Improved separation, collection, and recycling of electrical
and electronic equipment are now seen as effective ways of obtaining metals, contributing to a sustainable economy and environment conservation and reducing the
demand for natural resources.
The geological scarcity of mineral resources has to be distinguished from the
economic shortage. The latter is a consequence of the former, with many associated
factors at play. The main difference between economic and geologic scarcity is the
fact that the latter is a structural and physical phenomenon, while the former is more
cyclical in character (Henckens et al. 2016). Market price is determined by the balance between supply and demand. Demand for mineral resources increases as a
result of the development of new applications, as observed in the use of rare earth
elements (REE) in electrical and electronic equipment, for instance. But the fast
industrial development in large countries such as China is another factor that
increases the demand for ores. In turn, demand may fall in the wake of a new,
cheaper replacement. Supply may also be influenced by decisions made by an oligopoly or monopoly. On the other hand, factors that reduce supply include accidents, strikes, and geopolitical actions.
Wen et al. (2015) developed a model to predict the demand, recycling potential,
and availability of copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), and iron (Fe). These metals are highly consumed in China, which was the largest steel producer in 1967,
1980, 1990, 2000, and in every year between 2007 and 2017, the year when the
country produced 49.7% of the world’s steel (Wen et al. 2015; World Steel
Association 1978, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014). In 2015 China led the production
of pig iron and was the main producer of Al between 2010 and 2017 (USGS 2016;
Statista 2017). Research indicates that primary copper and iron resources in China
will be exhausted in 10 and 30 years, respectively. This means that mining metals
will be a difficult task in the future. However, there are alternative ways to secure a
stable supply of metals, based on the recovery of metals in electrical and electronic
equipment, for instance.
The primary copper and iron resources may be effectively replaced by secondary
metals, as shown in Table 10.1.
It has been estimated that primary resources will be replaced by other sources in
the years between 2020 and 2040. These other sources include the recycling and
recovery of metals like copper and iron in E-waste, for instance, whose recovery
T. A. da Silveira et al.