94
that E-waste recycling in China is supported by the informal sector and results in
occupational health risks, besides being an inefficient process (Steubing et al. 2010).
Some authors consider the feasibility of a Chinese E-waste management model
that allows the formal model and the informal model compatibility, prioritizing
dismantling and recycling (formal) and collection (informal) (Yu et al. 2010; Chi
et al. 2014).
Despite the major challenges that China still poses in the international scenario
of E-waste management, one must recognize its advances in regulating the
management of information on the harmful impacts generated by E-waste (Scruggs
et al. 2016).
South Korea
Since 1992 it was introduced in South Korea (or the Republic of Korea) the act of
saving and recycling of resources under which charges and deposit fee system were
established for industries to promote recycling for different products (Rhee 2016).
In 2003 it was instituted a mandatory E-waste recycling programme in South
Korea that included 11 categories of post-consumer products (Kim et al. 2013), but
since 2013 there are only five groups in which there are 27 categories of E-waste
(Rhee 2016). This programme was based on the extended producer responsibility
principle, and since 2006 the brominated flame retardants are restricted in several
products from South Korea. These same authors estimated the E-waste generation
amounts according to eight categories and suggested that by 2020 there will be
more than 70 million units of mobile phones ownership, with an average lifespan of
2.5 years, and an expected E-waste generation of 20 million units in 2020.
According to Park et al. (2014), Korea has seven recycling centres where E-waste
materials are processed. These authors analysed emissions of flame retardants
compounds, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers, during usage, disposal and
recycling life cycle phases in Korea. Despite being banned in the Fourth Conference
of the Parties in Stockholm, these compounds are still present in different E-waste
components. Park et al. (2014) identified significant amounts of polybrominated
diphenyl ether emissions from plastic recycling plants. The findings suggest that old
televisions devices, before the year of 2000, have ten times more polybrominated
diphenyl ethers than those produced after this year, and the storage in opening areas
also suggested higher impact from emissions.
A dilemma has been established as to the definition of the percentage to be stipulated for the management of E-waste. While a proposal stipulated the percentage
according to the amount of electrical and electronic equipment placed on the market
annually, another proposal seeks to establish the percentage according to the volume
of E-waste generated annually (Kim et al. 2013).
E-waste generation increased slightly in Korea from 2003 to 2007, but in 2009 it
stagnated due to the economic depression (Rhee 2016). This author presents that
Korea collected in 2013 almost 160 million tonnes of E-waste, from which over
60% were collected by producers in reverse logistics systems and more than 25%
were collected by recycling companies.
P. Guarnieri et al.
that E-waste recycling in China is supported by the informal sector and results in
occupational health risks, besides being an inefficient process (Steubing et al. 2010).
Some authors consider the feasibility of a Chinese E-waste management model
that allows the formal model and the informal model compatibility, prioritizing
dismantling and recycling (formal) and collection (informal) (Yu et al. 2010; Chi
et al. 2014).
Despite the major challenges that China still poses in the international scenario
of E-waste management, one must recognize its advances in regulating the
management of information on the harmful impacts generated by E-waste (Scruggs
et al. 2016).
South Korea
Since 1992 it was introduced in South Korea (or the Republic of Korea) the act of
saving and recycling of resources under which charges and deposit fee system were
established for industries to promote recycling for different products (Rhee 2016).
In 2003 it was instituted a mandatory E-waste recycling programme in South
Korea that included 11 categories of post-consumer products (Kim et al. 2013), but
since 2013 there are only five groups in which there are 27 categories of E-waste
(Rhee 2016). This programme was based on the extended producer responsibility
principle, and since 2006 the brominated flame retardants are restricted in several
products from South Korea. These same authors estimated the E-waste generation
amounts according to eight categories and suggested that by 2020 there will be
more than 70 million units of mobile phones ownership, with an average lifespan of
2.5 years, and an expected E-waste generation of 20 million units in 2020.
According to Park et al. (2014), Korea has seven recycling centres where E-waste
materials are processed. These authors analysed emissions of flame retardants
compounds, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers, during usage, disposal and
recycling life cycle phases in Korea. Despite being banned in the Fourth Conference
of the Parties in Stockholm, these compounds are still present in different E-waste
components. Park et al. (2014) identified significant amounts of polybrominated
diphenyl ether emissions from plastic recycling plants. The findings suggest that old
televisions devices, before the year of 2000, have ten times more polybrominated
diphenyl ethers than those produced after this year, and the storage in opening areas
also suggested higher impact from emissions.
A dilemma has been established as to the definition of the percentage to be stipulated for the management of E-waste. While a proposal stipulated the percentage
according to the amount of electrical and electronic equipment placed on the market
annually, another proposal seeks to establish the percentage according to the volume
of E-waste generated annually (Kim et al. 2013).
E-waste generation increased slightly in Korea from 2003 to 2007, but in 2009 it
stagnated due to the economic depression (Rhee 2016). This author presents that
Korea collected in 2013 almost 160 million tonnes of E-waste, from which over
60% were collected by producers in reverse logistics systems and more than 25%
were collected by recycling companies.
P. Guarnieri et al.