majority of households in the least developed countries (LDCs) of sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) (ESMAP 2018).
The supply and share of different types of bioenergy fuels and products vary
tremendously by region (Table 2.1) and is closely linked to levels of urbanisation,
economic development/growth, standard of living, income, availability of affordable
alternative energy sources and national policies (IEA 2018; Bildirici and Ersin
2015). For example, in OECD countries and some emerging economies, there is a
diverse mix of modern biomass-based fuels and applications available on the market
(e.g. liquid biofuels, solid biomass, biogas) (Table 2.1). This is largely due to policydriven changes during the past three decades arising from concerns over energy
security and climate change (Chum et al. 2011). By contrast, in SSA, more than 90%
of the biomass used for energy is in traditional forms (e.g. charcoal, fuelwood) and is
mainly used for household cooking and heating, with urban charcoal use driving
most of the growth in bioenergy demand during the past two decades (IEA 2018).
Charcoal is preferred to fuelwood due to its higher energy density, cleaner burning
characteristics and easier storage (Smeets et al. 2012). Electricity, kerosene and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) offer cleaner alternatives, but generally require
substantial subsidies to become affordable for the poor in SSA (Takama et al.
2012; Mudombi et al. 2018b) (Chap. 5 Vol. 2).
The lack of extensive modern bioenergy adoption in SSA lies in stark contrast to
its potential, including for liquid biofuels and for other modern gaseous and solid
fuels. For example, agricultural harvesting and processing residues in SSA have
Table 2.1 Trends in global bioenergy use (in PJ)
Biomass type
Africa
Non-OECD
Asia
Non
OCED
Americas
Non-OECD
Europe/Eurasia/
Middle East
OECD World
1990 Municipal waste <1
3
<1
<1
562
565
Solid biomass
8206
19,510
3053
731
5658 37,159
Biogas
<1
<1
<1
<1
6 4
6 4
Liquid biofuels <1
<1
224
<1
<1
224
2000 Municipal waste <1
27
<1
131
1046 1204
Solid biomass
10,466 20,730
2889
54
6284 40,906
Biogas
<1
49
<1
<1
236
285
Liquid biofuels <1
3
269
<1
148
420
2010 Municipal waste 3
241
<1
172
1413 1828
Solid biomass
13,806 19,491
4173
699
7522 45,692
Biogas
<1
314
1.4
1.6
520
837
Liquid biofuels <1
111
642
8
1679 2220
2015 Municipal waste 3
324
<1
211
1632 2169
Solid biomass
15,800 19,887
4312
781
7904 48,685
Biogas
<1
374
9
6565
899
1289
Liquid biofuels 2
251
933
21
2093 3300
Source: IEA (2018)
52
F. X. Johnson et al.
Africa (SSA) (ESMAP 2018).
The supply and share of different types of bioenergy fuels and products vary
tremendously by region (Table 2.1) and is closely linked to levels of urbanisation,
economic development/growth, standard of living, income, availability of affordable
alternative energy sources and national policies (IEA 2018; Bildirici and Ersin
2015). For example, in OECD countries and some emerging economies, there is a
diverse mix of modern biomass-based fuels and applications available on the market
(e.g. liquid biofuels, solid biomass, biogas) (Table 2.1). This is largely due to policydriven changes during the past three decades arising from concerns over energy
security and climate change (Chum et al. 2011). By contrast, in SSA, more than 90%
of the biomass used for energy is in traditional forms (e.g. charcoal, fuelwood) and is
mainly used for household cooking and heating, with urban charcoal use driving
most of the growth in bioenergy demand during the past two decades (IEA 2018).
Charcoal is preferred to fuelwood due to its higher energy density, cleaner burning
characteristics and easier storage (Smeets et al. 2012). Electricity, kerosene and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) offer cleaner alternatives, but generally require
substantial subsidies to become affordable for the poor in SSA (Takama et al.
2012; Mudombi et al. 2018b) (Chap. 5 Vol. 2).
The lack of extensive modern bioenergy adoption in SSA lies in stark contrast to
its potential, including for liquid biofuels and for other modern gaseous and solid
fuels. For example, agricultural harvesting and processing residues in SSA have
Table 2.1 Trends in global bioenergy use (in PJ)
Biomass type
Africa
Non-OECD
Asia
Non
OCED
Americas
Non-OECD
Europe/Eurasia/
Middle East
OECD World
1990 Municipal waste <1
3
<1
<1
562
565
Solid biomass
8206
19,510
3053
731
5658 37,159
Biogas
<1
<1
<1
<1
6 4
6 4
Liquid biofuels <1
<1
224
<1
<1
224
2000 Municipal waste <1
27
<1
131
1046 1204
Solid biomass
10,466 20,730
2889
54
6284 40,906
Biogas
<1
49
<1
<1
236
285
Liquid biofuels <1
3
269
<1
148
420
2010 Municipal waste 3
241
<1
172
1413 1828
Solid biomass
13,806 19,491
4173
699
7522 45,692
Biogas
<1
314
1.4
1.6
520
837
Liquid biofuels <1
111
642
8
1679 2220
2015 Municipal waste 3
324
<1
211
1632 2169
Solid biomass
15,800 19,887
4312
781
7904 48,685
Biogas
<1
374
9
6565
899
1289
Liquid biofuels 2
251
933
21
2093 3300
Source: IEA (2018)
52
F. X. Johnson et al.