overexploitation, climate and invasive species, among others (IPBES 2018). For
example, countries such as Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique have lost 15–30% of
their mangroves, while coral reefs in the Indian Ocean have also declined by as much
as 15% (IPBES 2018). However, most coastal countries have very few marine
protected areas,
10 which are collectively well below the expected goal of protecting
10% of coastal and marine areas (SDG Centre for Africa 2019; UNEP-WCMC
2016). Overall, the coverage of marine conservation areas in SSA is only 2.6%,
which is one of the lowest in the world, and far below the global average of 8.4%
(UNECA 2017). Furthermore, there are some indications of overfishing, with the
oceanic areas bordering SSA having a similar proportion of marine fish stocks that
are within biologically sustainable limits as the rest of the world (67%, in 2015, but
declining from 90% in 1974, and stabilizing since 2008) (UN 2019). Similar patterns
are also evident for water pollution in coastal areas, with water quality designated as
mostly clean to average, apart from some equatorial zones (UN 2019).
Coastal and marine areas are increasingly identified as a major element of African
development at the local, national and regional levels. For example, according to the
Africa Agenda 2063, the transition to a Blue Economy could contribute substantially
to continental transformation, development and growth (UNECA 2016b). However,
there are many major challenges for meeting SDG14 in SSA, including
(a) unsustainable coastal/marine management practices, (b) urbanization and
unregulated trade, (c) lack of political commitment and (d) lack of data.
First, many coastal communities rely directly and indirectly on seascapes for their
livelihoods and well-being (IPBES 2018; Owuor et al. 2017; Chaigneau et al. 2019;
FAO 2014; Belhabib et al. 2015). However, many of these communities adopt
unsustainable coastal/marine management practices due to the lack of capacity and
resources and institutional lock-in (IPBES 2018). This is often aggravated by the fact
that traditional top-down management approaches in coastal and marine contexts do
not allow for the development of local management approaches that are contextually
sensitive, and often preclude stakeholder participation and sense of ownership
(UNECA 2016b; IPBES 2018).
Second, coastal cities are some of the most rapidly expanding urban areas in the
continent, and host an increasing number of ports and industrial facilities. These
ports play a very important role in trade and overall development, as more than 90%
of SSA exports and imports are transported through them (compared to the global
average of approximately 80%) (UNECA 2017). However, coastal cities, industrial
zones and ports are major polluters, including hazardous waste and plastic pollution
(UNECA 2016b; IPBES 2018). Undoubtedly, sustained investment would be
needed to expand maritime facilities and enable related innovations to meet devel10 Some island nations and countries with major coastlines such as Angola, Comoros, Mauritius,
Nigeria, Seychelles and Sao Tome and Principe do not have any designated marine protected areas
(SDG Centre for Africa 2019).
32
D. Juju et al.
example, countries such as Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique have lost 15–30% of
their mangroves, while coral reefs in the Indian Ocean have also declined by as much
as 15% (IPBES 2018). However, most coastal countries have very few marine
protected areas,
10 which are collectively well below the expected goal of protecting
10% of coastal and marine areas (SDG Centre for Africa 2019; UNEP-WCMC
2016). Overall, the coverage of marine conservation areas in SSA is only 2.6%,
which is one of the lowest in the world, and far below the global average of 8.4%
(UNECA 2017). Furthermore, there are some indications of overfishing, with the
oceanic areas bordering SSA having a similar proportion of marine fish stocks that
are within biologically sustainable limits as the rest of the world (67%, in 2015, but
declining from 90% in 1974, and stabilizing since 2008) (UN 2019). Similar patterns
are also evident for water pollution in coastal areas, with water quality designated as
mostly clean to average, apart from some equatorial zones (UN 2019).
Coastal and marine areas are increasingly identified as a major element of African
development at the local, national and regional levels. For example, according to the
Africa Agenda 2063, the transition to a Blue Economy could contribute substantially
to continental transformation, development and growth (UNECA 2016b). However,
there are many major challenges for meeting SDG14 in SSA, including
(a) unsustainable coastal/marine management practices, (b) urbanization and
unregulated trade, (c) lack of political commitment and (d) lack of data.
First, many coastal communities rely directly and indirectly on seascapes for their
livelihoods and well-being (IPBES 2018; Owuor et al. 2017; Chaigneau et al. 2019;
FAO 2014; Belhabib et al. 2015). However, many of these communities adopt
unsustainable coastal/marine management practices due to the lack of capacity and
resources and institutional lock-in (IPBES 2018). This is often aggravated by the fact
that traditional top-down management approaches in coastal and marine contexts do
not allow for the development of local management approaches that are contextually
sensitive, and often preclude stakeholder participation and sense of ownership
(UNECA 2016b; IPBES 2018).
Second, coastal cities are some of the most rapidly expanding urban areas in the
continent, and host an increasing number of ports and industrial facilities. These
ports play a very important role in trade and overall development, as more than 90%
of SSA exports and imports are transported through them (compared to the global
average of approximately 80%) (UNECA 2017). However, coastal cities, industrial
zones and ports are major polluters, including hazardous waste and plastic pollution
(UNECA 2016b; IPBES 2018). Undoubtedly, sustained investment would be
needed to expand maritime facilities and enable related innovations to meet devel10 Some island nations and countries with major coastlines such as Angola, Comoros, Mauritius,
Nigeria, Seychelles and Sao Tome and Principe do not have any designated marine protected areas
(SDG Centre for Africa 2019).
32
D. Juju et al.