(CO) and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) (WHO 2014; Ezzati and Kammen 2002; Bailis et al.
2007). Women, girls and young children are particularly exposed to such pollutants,
as they spend substantial amounts of time cooking in poorly ventilated kitchens
(Shankar et al. 2015). In fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported an
estimated 600,000 annual premature deaths in SSA due to health complications from
traditional cooking practices (WHO 2014).
Many organizations have raised alarming calls about the need to reverse the
traditional reliance on fuelwood, especially for household energy use (WHO 2016;
ESMAP 2015; GACC 2014; SE4All 2012). However, although biomass use is not,
in itself, a cause for concern (Chap. 2 Vol. 1), it is the unsustainable current
harvesting practices and energy conversion technologies (for both household use
and livelihood activities) that raise these major concerns about the consequences for
health, economic development and the environment. At the same time, imbalances
on the demand, supply and use of biomass have been observed in many SSA
countries, raising further concerns about the viability of the current biomass energy
system in the long run (Chap. 2 Vol. 1; Chap. 5 Vol. 2). Often, policy responses to
the prevailing unsustainable fuelwood procurement and use practices have aimed at
banning fuelwood harvesting altogether in some contexts (FAO 2001). However, the
evidence suggests that such restrictions are often ineffective in enhancing the
sustainability of the energy system, particularly if national governments have low
enforcement capacity and fail to take measures to promote and facilitate access to
alternative household fuels (FAO 2017a, b).
The above suggest the strong linkage between energy use, traditional livelihoods,
and environmental conservation in SSA. This interface presents a major sustainability challenge for many countries in the continent. Balancing such diverse objectives
is indeed challenging but can catalyse progress for many different Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) such as SDG1 (No poverty), SDG2 (Zero hunger),
SDG 7 (Affordable and clean energy), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure) and SDG15 (Life on land). However, the dynamics between these different
policy objectives are not well understood in many countries across the region,
considering the large variation in ecosystems, local livelihoods and energy demand
and supply practices.
Guinea is a country in western Africa that exemplifies this interface of high
fuelwood reliance for domestic use and livelihood activities, with environmental
degradation. With a population of 12.7 million people in 2013 (World Bank 2017),
only less than 2% of the population has access to non-biomass cooking fuels (IEA
et al. 2019). Indeed, more than 74% of households use fuelwood for cooking and
about 24% charcoal (Republic of Guinea 2012). Only 34% have access to electricity
(IEA et al. 2019), and although the fraction of households with access increased
slightly in rural areas between 2007 (1.4%) and 2012 (2.6%), it declined markedly in
urban areas (65.7% and 55.5% respectively) (AFDB 2010; IMF 2013a, b).
At the same time, fuelwood consumption grew from about 8.7 Mm
3 in 1980 to
about 12.2 Mm
3 in 2000, largely due to population growth (Broadhead et al. 2001).
However, there is a dearth of accurate estimates on the actual biomass potential, with
estimates ranging between 8.5 and 14 Mm
3 in terms of accessible biomass volume
7 Linking Rural Livelihoods and Fuelwood Demand from Mangroves and Upland. . .
223
2007). Women, girls and young children are particularly exposed to such pollutants,
as they spend substantial amounts of time cooking in poorly ventilated kitchens
(Shankar et al. 2015). In fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported an
estimated 600,000 annual premature deaths in SSA due to health complications from
traditional cooking practices (WHO 2014).
Many organizations have raised alarming calls about the need to reverse the
traditional reliance on fuelwood, especially for household energy use (WHO 2016;
ESMAP 2015; GACC 2014; SE4All 2012). However, although biomass use is not,
in itself, a cause for concern (Chap. 2 Vol. 1), it is the unsustainable current
harvesting practices and energy conversion technologies (for both household use
and livelihood activities) that raise these major concerns about the consequences for
health, economic development and the environment. At the same time, imbalances
on the demand, supply and use of biomass have been observed in many SSA
countries, raising further concerns about the viability of the current biomass energy
system in the long run (Chap. 2 Vol. 1; Chap. 5 Vol. 2). Often, policy responses to
the prevailing unsustainable fuelwood procurement and use practices have aimed at
banning fuelwood harvesting altogether in some contexts (FAO 2001). However, the
evidence suggests that such restrictions are often ineffective in enhancing the
sustainability of the energy system, particularly if national governments have low
enforcement capacity and fail to take measures to promote and facilitate access to
alternative household fuels (FAO 2017a, b).
The above suggest the strong linkage between energy use, traditional livelihoods,
and environmental conservation in SSA. This interface presents a major sustainability challenge for many countries in the continent. Balancing such diverse objectives
is indeed challenging but can catalyse progress for many different Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) such as SDG1 (No poverty), SDG2 (Zero hunger),
SDG 7 (Affordable and clean energy), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure) and SDG15 (Life on land). However, the dynamics between these different
policy objectives are not well understood in many countries across the region,
considering the large variation in ecosystems, local livelihoods and energy demand
and supply practices.
Guinea is a country in western Africa that exemplifies this interface of high
fuelwood reliance for domestic use and livelihood activities, with environmental
degradation. With a population of 12.7 million people in 2013 (World Bank 2017),
only less than 2% of the population has access to non-biomass cooking fuels (IEA
et al. 2019). Indeed, more than 74% of households use fuelwood for cooking and
about 24% charcoal (Republic of Guinea 2012). Only 34% have access to electricity
(IEA et al. 2019), and although the fraction of households with access increased
slightly in rural areas between 2007 (1.4%) and 2012 (2.6%), it declined markedly in
urban areas (65.7% and 55.5% respectively) (AFDB 2010; IMF 2013a, b).
At the same time, fuelwood consumption grew from about 8.7 Mm
3 in 1980 to
about 12.2 Mm
3 in 2000, largely due to population growth (Broadhead et al. 2001).
However, there is a dearth of accurate estimates on the actual biomass potential, with
estimates ranging between 8.5 and 14 Mm
3 in terms of accessible biomass volume
7 Linking Rural Livelihoods and Fuelwood Demand from Mangroves and Upland. . .
223