continuous wood-based fuel demand can be met in a sustainable manner in the
continent. First of all, there are substantial knowledge gaps, as most of the current
and future fuelwood consumption estimates are typically based on fuel preferences
and per capita consumption averages (Drigo and Nzabanita 2011; IEA 2014). Yet,
there are significant discrepancies between such estimates, which are often drawn
from different sources such as household surveys and simulation modelling based on
secondary data (IRENA 2018). In any case, in 2011, SSA had the world’s highest
per capita fuelwood consumption among global regions, standing on average at
0.69 m
3 /year, compared to the global average of 0.27 m
3 /year (Iiyama et al. 2014).
At the same time, there is a lack of reliable and updated data about the distribution of
fuelwood demand among the main economic sectors in SSA. A sectoral analysis of
fuelwood consumption identified that households accounted for more than 86%
(537 Mm
3 ) of the total consumption in SSA in 1994 (FAO n.d.). The industrial
sector (consisting mainly of traditional industries such as furniture production and
housing construction) accounted for about 10% of the total consumption (59.4 Mm
3 )
and other sectors just 4% (25.9 Mm
3 ) (FAO n.d.).
Various studies have documented the many different negative and positive
environmental and socioeconomic outcomes of fuelwood harvesting and use in
SSA (Arnold et al. 2006; Bailis et al. 2015; Cerutti et al. 2015; Karanja and
Gasparatos 2019). For instance, fuelwood and charcoal value chains generate
employment and income to producers and traders in many SSA countries (Iiyama
et al. 2014; Smith et al. 2017; Woollen et al. 2016). Approximately 200–350 jobs/TJ
are generated across the charcoal value chain (FAO 2017b), while commercial
biomass energy value chains employ about 13 million people across the continent
(Openshaw 2010).
However, the unsustainable harvesting of trees for fuelwood and charcoal
increasingly contributes to deforestation, ecosystem degradation, biodiversity loss
and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (FAO 2007; World Bank 2017; IPBES 2018)
(see Chap. 2 Vol. 1; Chap. 5 Vol. 2). Unsustainable fuelwood harvesting has been
linked to deforestation and the loss of ecosystem services both at a regional level
(IPBES 2018) and at many different specific local contexts (Drigo and Nzabanita
2011; Drigo 2005; Bolognesi et al. 2015; Sedano et al. 2016). For instance, Kenya
loses 10.3 Mm
3 of wood from its forests every year due to overexploitation and
unsustainable charcoal and fuelwood use (GoK 2013). Furthermore, unsustainable
fuelwood harvesting and use accounts for a major part of GHG emissions in SSA,
estimated at 1.0–1.2 Gt CO 2 e/year (1.9–2.3% of global emissions) (Bailis et al.
2015).
Studies have also linked high fuelwood reliance to many negative socioeconomic
outcomes related to poverty, energy insecurity, gender inequality, and unhealthy
living conditions (Karanja and Gasparatos 2019). Usually women and girls undertake fuelwood procurement and collection at the household level (and often for other
livelihood activities), especially in rural areas (Shankar et al. 2015; Jasaw et al.
2017). Several studies have also pointed to the health implications of biomass fuel
use through traditional and inefficient cookstoves due to the high emissions of
indoor air pollutants such as fine particulate matter (e.g. PM 2.5 ), carbon monoxide
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B. S. Balde et al.
continent. First of all, there are substantial knowledge gaps, as most of the current
and future fuelwood consumption estimates are typically based on fuel preferences
and per capita consumption averages (Drigo and Nzabanita 2011; IEA 2014). Yet,
there are significant discrepancies between such estimates, which are often drawn
from different sources such as household surveys and simulation modelling based on
secondary data (IRENA 2018). In any case, in 2011, SSA had the world’s highest
per capita fuelwood consumption among global regions, standing on average at
0.69 m
3 /year, compared to the global average of 0.27 m
3 /year (Iiyama et al. 2014).
At the same time, there is a lack of reliable and updated data about the distribution of
fuelwood demand among the main economic sectors in SSA. A sectoral analysis of
fuelwood consumption identified that households accounted for more than 86%
(537 Mm
3 ) of the total consumption in SSA in 1994 (FAO n.d.). The industrial
sector (consisting mainly of traditional industries such as furniture production and
housing construction) accounted for about 10% of the total consumption (59.4 Mm
3 )
and other sectors just 4% (25.9 Mm
3 ) (FAO n.d.).
Various studies have documented the many different negative and positive
environmental and socioeconomic outcomes of fuelwood harvesting and use in
SSA (Arnold et al. 2006; Bailis et al. 2015; Cerutti et al. 2015; Karanja and
Gasparatos 2019). For instance, fuelwood and charcoal value chains generate
employment and income to producers and traders in many SSA countries (Iiyama
et al. 2014; Smith et al. 2017; Woollen et al. 2016). Approximately 200–350 jobs/TJ
are generated across the charcoal value chain (FAO 2017b), while commercial
biomass energy value chains employ about 13 million people across the continent
(Openshaw 2010).
However, the unsustainable harvesting of trees for fuelwood and charcoal
increasingly contributes to deforestation, ecosystem degradation, biodiversity loss
and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (FAO 2007; World Bank 2017; IPBES 2018)
(see Chap. 2 Vol. 1; Chap. 5 Vol. 2). Unsustainable fuelwood harvesting has been
linked to deforestation and the loss of ecosystem services both at a regional level
(IPBES 2018) and at many different specific local contexts (Drigo and Nzabanita
2011; Drigo 2005; Bolognesi et al. 2015; Sedano et al. 2016). For instance, Kenya
loses 10.3 Mm
3 of wood from its forests every year due to overexploitation and
unsustainable charcoal and fuelwood use (GoK 2013). Furthermore, unsustainable
fuelwood harvesting and use accounts for a major part of GHG emissions in SSA,
estimated at 1.0–1.2 Gt CO 2 e/year (1.9–2.3% of global emissions) (Bailis et al.
2015).
Studies have also linked high fuelwood reliance to many negative socioeconomic
outcomes related to poverty, energy insecurity, gender inequality, and unhealthy
living conditions (Karanja and Gasparatos 2019). Usually women and girls undertake fuelwood procurement and collection at the household level (and often for other
livelihood activities), especially in rural areas (Shankar et al. 2015; Jasaw et al.
2017). Several studies have also pointed to the health implications of biomass fuel
use through traditional and inefficient cookstoves due to the high emissions of
indoor air pollutants such as fine particulate matter (e.g. PM 2.5 ), carbon monoxide
222
B. S. Balde et al.