66
H. A. Tajarudin et al.
Fig. 2 Pie chart for the
composition inside the
woody biomass
Cellulose: 45 %
Hemicellulose:
SW 25 %
HW 30 %
SW: 25 %
HW :21%
2 %
Chart Title
lignin
carbohydrate
extractive
Many lignocellulosic biomass has been studied for the production of bioethanol
in the last three decades (DiPardo 2000; Zabed et al. 2017). According to the authors,
lignocellulosic biomass can be divided into four groups based on respective sources:
dedicated energy crops (switchgrass, silvergrass, and napier grass), forest residues
(woodchips, sawdust), agricultural residues (rice straw, cane bagasse, and pulp),
and organic municipal solid wastes (recycled paper sludge, waste office paper). Each
group has their distinctive characteristics and notable potential for ethanol production
and the summary is shown in Table 1. Despite numerous reports, the interest on
lignocellulosic feedstock always renewed with discoveries of significant findings
and novel technology, particularly in the group of dedicated energy crops.
Easily grown crops with fast-growing rate and high biomass yield are the ideal
candidates of cellulosic energy crops. These crops are commonly dedicated for
biofuel production and they are either belongs to C3 or C4 photosynthetic plants.
During photosynthesis, the two types of plant differ in Rubisco oxygenase activity,
in which the former may use oxygen as substrate, rendering it less efficient in carbon
fixation than the latter (van der Weijde et al. 2013). Apparently, the latter possess
higher efficiency in converting solar energy into biomass especially in warm and
arid climate. Moreover, nitrogen and water use efficiency is 1.3–4 times higher in
C4 plants (Sage and Zhu 2011). Some C4 energy crops are silvergrass (Miscanthus
spp.), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) while
C3 energy crops include timothy grass (Phleum pratense L.), reed canary grass
(Phalaris arundinacea), giant reed (Arundo donax) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa).
These are the common grass that is present in the backyard of any campus and
conventionally, the grass waste will be burned out without noticed their valuable
profit if converted into the bioethanol fuel (Table 1).
Industrial crop and food crop are the two sources of agricultural residues.
Available form of industrial crop residues is cotton stalks, flax shives, and hemp
hurds. Nevertheless, world top four agricultural residues all originates from food
crops, viz. rice straw (731.30 Mt year
−1 ), wheat straw (354.34 Mt year
−1 ), corn
H. A. Tajarudin et al.
Fig. 2 Pie chart for the
composition inside the
woody biomass
Cellulose: 45 %
Hemicellulose:
SW 25 %
HW 30 %
SW: 25 %
HW :21%
2 %
Chart Title
lignin
carbohydrate
extractive
Many lignocellulosic biomass has been studied for the production of bioethanol
in the last three decades (DiPardo 2000; Zabed et al. 2017). According to the authors,
lignocellulosic biomass can be divided into four groups based on respective sources:
dedicated energy crops (switchgrass, silvergrass, and napier grass), forest residues
(woodchips, sawdust), agricultural residues (rice straw, cane bagasse, and pulp),
and organic municipal solid wastes (recycled paper sludge, waste office paper). Each
group has their distinctive characteristics and notable potential for ethanol production
and the summary is shown in Table 1. Despite numerous reports, the interest on
lignocellulosic feedstock always renewed with discoveries of significant findings
and novel technology, particularly in the group of dedicated energy crops.
Easily grown crops with fast-growing rate and high biomass yield are the ideal
candidates of cellulosic energy crops. These crops are commonly dedicated for
biofuel production and they are either belongs to C3 or C4 photosynthetic plants.
During photosynthesis, the two types of plant differ in Rubisco oxygenase activity,
in which the former may use oxygen as substrate, rendering it less efficient in carbon
fixation than the latter (van der Weijde et al. 2013). Apparently, the latter possess
higher efficiency in converting solar energy into biomass especially in warm and
arid climate. Moreover, nitrogen and water use efficiency is 1.3–4 times higher in
C4 plants (Sage and Zhu 2011). Some C4 energy crops are silvergrass (Miscanthus
spp.), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) while
C3 energy crops include timothy grass (Phleum pratense L.), reed canary grass
(Phalaris arundinacea), giant reed (Arundo donax) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa).
These are the common grass that is present in the backyard of any campus and
conventionally, the grass waste will be burned out without noticed their valuable
profit if converted into the bioethanol fuel (Table 1).
Industrial crop and food crop are the two sources of agricultural residues.
Available form of industrial crop residues is cotton stalks, flax shives, and hemp
hurds. Nevertheless, world top four agricultural residues all originates from food
crops, viz. rice straw (731.30 Mt year
−1 ), wheat straw (354.34 Mt year
−1 ), corn