migration. Grindle (1980) further stated that the failure caused by this concept is
obviously accountable for the challenges in the urban centres, such as overpopulation, increase in crime, poor sanitary conditions, low life span of social amenities/
facilities, high cost of living, security challenges, diseases, and unemployment.
3.4.4 Industrial Development Model
The concept of the industrial development model postulates that, for a rural development programme to be successful, industrialising the economy is a precondition.
Conceptually, the industrial development model is based on the assumption that
industrialising the rural area would further create employment opportunities for the
people and also attract other social amenities, such as water, electricity, road, health,
education, and recreational facilities, amongst others (Todaro 1995). Unfortunately,
due to poor management and a lack of sufficient funding, industries in most African
countries are largely short-lived.
3.5 Funding Approaches for Rural Development in Africa
Generally, there are a number of approaches which have been adopted by international donors and the government to support rural development in Africa over time.
Most of these approaches were initiated based on the influences of the technology
transfer which is predicted to have multiple effects, such as the eradication of
poverty by means of development focused on rural areas, to an integrated approach
for such rural development (Baah-Dwomoh 2016). When criticism began due to the
weaknesses identified with the integrated rural development approach, the concept
of market liberalisation was then introduced, which included the structural adjustment programmes that serve as a direct support for agriculture and rural development. From the 1980s, the agricultural support programmes mainly for rural
development by both the governments and donor agencies started declining. Also,
from the 1990s, there was a shift from the integrated rural development to schemes.
Since then, donor support for rural development, especially for agriculture in Africa,
was spread across various agricultural activities, such as research, extension, credit,
seeds, and policy reforms, in rural spaces. Consequently, the funding approach for
rural development programmes was changed and restructured into a communitydriven development. This concept mainly focuses on community participation,
empowerment, as well as broadening the horizon of rural livelihood prospects
(Baah-Dwomoh 2016). Since the introduction of the community-driven development (CDD) in the mid-1990s, the concept has proven to be reliable for rural
community development amongst non-governmental organisations, international
donors, and development banks. Initially, the concept of CDD was influential
because it recognised the ample contribution of large-scale, bottom-up, and
38
A. N. Zadawa and A. Omran
obviously accountable for the challenges in the urban centres, such as overpopulation, increase in crime, poor sanitary conditions, low life span of social amenities/
facilities, high cost of living, security challenges, diseases, and unemployment.
3.4.4 Industrial Development Model
The concept of the industrial development model postulates that, for a rural development programme to be successful, industrialising the economy is a precondition.
Conceptually, the industrial development model is based on the assumption that
industrialising the rural area would further create employment opportunities for the
people and also attract other social amenities, such as water, electricity, road, health,
education, and recreational facilities, amongst others (Todaro 1995). Unfortunately,
due to poor management and a lack of sufficient funding, industries in most African
countries are largely short-lived.
3.5 Funding Approaches for Rural Development in Africa
Generally, there are a number of approaches which have been adopted by international donors and the government to support rural development in Africa over time.
Most of these approaches were initiated based on the influences of the technology
transfer which is predicted to have multiple effects, such as the eradication of
poverty by means of development focused on rural areas, to an integrated approach
for such rural development (Baah-Dwomoh 2016). When criticism began due to the
weaknesses identified with the integrated rural development approach, the concept
of market liberalisation was then introduced, which included the structural adjustment programmes that serve as a direct support for agriculture and rural development. From the 1980s, the agricultural support programmes mainly for rural
development by both the governments and donor agencies started declining. Also,
from the 1990s, there was a shift from the integrated rural development to schemes.
Since then, donor support for rural development, especially for agriculture in Africa,
was spread across various agricultural activities, such as research, extension, credit,
seeds, and policy reforms, in rural spaces. Consequently, the funding approach for
rural development programmes was changed and restructured into a communitydriven development. This concept mainly focuses on community participation,
empowerment, as well as broadening the horizon of rural livelihood prospects
(Baah-Dwomoh 2016). Since the introduction of the community-driven development (CDD) in the mid-1990s, the concept has proven to be reliable for rural
community development amongst non-governmental organisations, international
donors, and development banks. Initially, the concept of CDD was influential
because it recognised the ample contribution of large-scale, bottom-up, and
38
A. N. Zadawa and A. Omran