80
3
One may ask why patenting, for instance in this example, is given a central
role as cause of exploitation in the biopiracy discourse, without empirical
grounds and in contrast to research. In order to understand this, it is important to notice the way the biopiracy discourse is produced according to a similar pattern as a group of what we may label radical discourses on various topics
on environment and development. Several of these discourses focus on patenting as the cause of unfairness and exploitation. Sometimes this view may be
correct, but in the case of the Hardanger Plateau fungus, we observed how the
claim was made without evidence and even despite contrary evidence. Thus,
sometimes claims are transferred from one discourse to another without
proper examination of whether or not the claim is supported by evidence
(Svarstad 2002).
Leading discourses are those discourses that are produced by powerful actors,
implying that they have consequences for policies, laws and practices. We find it
important to examine such discourses and compare them to empirical studies of
the topics that the claims of these discourses focus on. In several of the following
chapters, we will make such comparisons between discourses and critical empirical
examinations. At the same time, we argue that it is important to study specific discourses in the context of other discourses in terms of the discourse order of a
specific issue as well as clusters of discourse types.
3.9 Four Types of Discourses on Environment
and Development
As we have seen, Shaman presented its bioprospecting in Tanzania in the form of
a win-win narrative, whilst the case of the Norwegian fungus has been subject to
the production of a biopiracy narrative. However, our own research in each of
these cases found no basis for agreeing with either the win-win or the biopiracy
narrative.
Discourses and their associated narratives help simplify reality, and this makes
it easier to interpret issues and cases that otherwise may appear as complex and
difficult to understand. The simplification facilitates action, but discourses also
bar other possible actions (Dryzek 1997). Political ecologists who provide critical
examinations of ‘established truths’, may bring forth knowledge and perspectives
that can contribute to debates, policies and practices in directions not thought of
previously. Contributing in this way presupposes familiarity with the discourses
produced in a field as well as sound empirical knowledge of the questions at
hand.
It also requires the will and possibility to ignore expectations, which we have
observed and experienced ourselves, that researchers ought to deliver knowledge
confirming the content of particular discourses. Such pressure seems to be increasing in many countries, as research is organized in ways that require the financial
support of research programmes in which public agencies may delineate narrow
discursive frames for the questions that researchers are allowed to address.
Chapter 3 · Discourses and Narratives on Environment and Development: The Example…
3
One may ask why patenting, for instance in this example, is given a central
role as cause of exploitation in the biopiracy discourse, without empirical
grounds and in contrast to research. In order to understand this, it is important to notice the way the biopiracy discourse is produced according to a similar pattern as a group of what we may label radical discourses on various topics
on environment and development. Several of these discourses focus on patenting as the cause of unfairness and exploitation. Sometimes this view may be
correct, but in the case of the Hardanger Plateau fungus, we observed how the
claim was made without evidence and even despite contrary evidence. Thus,
sometimes claims are transferred from one discourse to another without
proper examination of whether or not the claim is supported by evidence
(Svarstad 2002).
Leading discourses are those discourses that are produced by powerful actors,
implying that they have consequences for policies, laws and practices. We find it
important to examine such discourses and compare them to empirical studies of
the topics that the claims of these discourses focus on. In several of the following
chapters, we will make such comparisons between discourses and critical empirical
examinations. At the same time, we argue that it is important to study specific discourses in the context of other discourses in terms of the discourse order of a
specific issue as well as clusters of discourse types.
3.9 Four Types of Discourses on Environment
and Development
As we have seen, Shaman presented its bioprospecting in Tanzania in the form of
a win-win narrative, whilst the case of the Norwegian fungus has been subject to
the production of a biopiracy narrative. However, our own research in each of
these cases found no basis for agreeing with either the win-win or the biopiracy
narrative.
Discourses and their associated narratives help simplify reality, and this makes
it easier to interpret issues and cases that otherwise may appear as complex and
difficult to understand. The simplification facilitates action, but discourses also
bar other possible actions (Dryzek 1997). Political ecologists who provide critical
examinations of ‘established truths’, may bring forth knowledge and perspectives
that can contribute to debates, policies and practices in directions not thought of
previously. Contributing in this way presupposes familiarity with the discourses
produced in a field as well as sound empirical knowledge of the questions at
hand.
It also requires the will and possibility to ignore expectations, which we have
observed and experienced ourselves, that researchers ought to deliver knowledge
confirming the content of particular discourses. Such pressure seems to be increasing in many countries, as research is organized in ways that require the financial
support of research programmes in which public agencies may delineate narrow
discursive frames for the questions that researchers are allowed to address.
Chapter 3 · Discourses and Narratives on Environment and Development: The Example…